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FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


BY 

JOHN  ROTH  WELL   SLATER,   Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    RHETORIC    AND    ENGLISH    LITERATURE 
I.N    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    ROCHESTER 


REVISED 


46623 


D.   C.  HEATH  &   CO.,  PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON  NEW   YORK  CHICAGO 


Copyright  1913  and  1922 

;y  d.  c.  heath  &  CO. 

2i2 


PRINTED   IN   U.  S.  Ao 


PREFACE 


The  first  seven  chapters  of  this  book  have  been  completely 
rewritten,  and  the  remainder  thoroughly  revised,  so  that  it  is  in 
effect  a  new  work.     The  most  important  changes  are  as  follows: 

1.  Whereas  the  first  edition  was  originally  designed  to  be 
used  with  a  companion  text-book  combining  a  review  of  grammar 
and  correction  of  common  errors,  and  was  later  issued  with  a 
supplementary  English  Drill  Course,  partly  meeting  this  need, 
the  present  edition  embodies  in  Chapters  I,  III,  and  V,  and  in 
the  Glossary  of  Common  Errors  at  the  end  of  the  book,  sufficient 
material  for  this  elementary  review. 

2.  Particular  attention  is  directed  to  the  constructive  exer- 
cises in  sentence  and  paragraph  writing  upon  assigned  topics  in 
Chapters  III  and  V,  which,  alternated  with  freer  work  in  con- 
nected exposition  (Chapters  II  and  IV),  have  been  found  to 
yield  good  results  in  combining  discipline  with  spontaneity. 
The  program  is  so  planned  as  to  avoid  long  unbroken  stretches 
of  necessary  but  monotonous  drill. 

3.  A  larger  amount  of  illustrative  specimens  of  expository 
paragraphs  quoted  from  standard  writers  has  been  introduced 
into  Chapter  V. 

4.  The  chapter  on  the  library  has  been  carefully  revised  to 
bring  it  up  to  date  and  to  make  it  a  more  complete  guide  to 
elementary  library  research. 

5.  In  order  to  allow  more  time  for  the  elementary  review 
during  the  first  six  weeks,  chapters  on  study,  recitation,  and  note 
taking  have  been  omitted,  and  the  oral  work  has  been  reduced. 
Some  teachers,  burdened  with  large  sections,  find  no  time  for 


iv  PREFACE 

oral  work  in  the  regular  course  in  composition.  The  present 
text  is  equally  adaptable  to  courses  with  or  without  oral  work. 
What  there  is  can  readily  be  omitted;  and  on  the  other  hand 
much  more  can  be  added,  especially  during  the  study  of  argu- 
mentation, if  time  and  circumstances  permit. 

6.  The  Suggested  Assignments  at  the  close  of  each  chapter 
take  the  place  of  the  calendar  of  assignments  based  on  the  earlier 
edition  and  printed  as  a  supplementary  pamphlet  for  teachers. 
These  ninety  assignments  allow  a  margin  of  two  weeks  in  the 
second  semester  for  other  exercises.  The  work  is  so  timed  as 
to  complete  the  first  long  essay  (Chapter  VII)  early  in  December 
and  to  finish  the  brief  study  of  argumentation  before  the  mid- 
year examinations.  Obviously  the  program  so  outlined  can  be 
altered  to  any  extent  or  ignored  entirely.  Its  purpose  is  merely 
to  indicate  one  way  in  which  a  well-balanced  course  in  composi- 
tion can  be  planned  without  imposing  undue  congestion  of  work 
upon  the  teacher  or  the  class.  The  Glossary  of  Common  Errors  is 
not  included  in  the  suggested  assignments,  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  perhaps  best  to  take  up  errors  as  they  arise. 

7.  The  Synopsis,  bringing  together  all  the  271  numbered 
section  titles,  may  be  convenient  for  both  teacher  and  class  in 
using  the  section  numbers  in  theme  correction. 

A  practical,  definite  program  for  a  year's  work  in  composi- 
tion, rather  than  a  theoretical  discussion  of  rhetorical  refinements, 
has  been  the  purpose  of  the  Freshman  Rhetoric  from  the  start. 
It  is  hoped  that  this  revised  edition  may  increase  the  success 
which  has  already  attended  this  attempt  to  lighten  the  burdens 
and  diminish  the  unprofitable  labors  of  teachers  and  students  of 
English  composition  in  their  difl&cult  endeavor. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I    Can  You  Make  Yourself  Understood?  .  i 

II    Explaining  a  Simple  Subject i6 

III    Good  Sentences 41 

IV    Exposition  of  Principles  and  Opinions          .  64 

V    Good  Paragraphs 81 

VI    How  TO  Use  a  Reference  Library           .      .  108 

VII    Exposition  Based  on  Reading        ....  149 

VIII    Speeches  for  Special  Occasions     ....  168 

IX    Letter  Writing 175 

X     Colloquial  English 189 

XI    Argumentation        205 

XII    Words 252 

XIII  The  Interpretation  of  Literature          .     .  291 

XIV  Description 301 

XV    The  Short  Story 322 

XVI    Historical  and  Biographical  Narration  .     .  338 

XVII    College  Journalism 347 

XVIII    Progress  and  Prospect 360 

Appendix 

Glossary  of  Common  Errors 365 

Words  Commonly  Mispronounced        .      .      .  380 

Spelling  Rules 384 

Words  Commonly  Misspelled 384 

V 


SYNOPSIS 


CHAPTER  I.     CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD? 

SECTION  PAGE 

1.  Language  is  an  attempt  at  communication 1 

2.  The  relation  of  correctness  to  clearness 2 

3.  Clearness  and  correctness  can  be  attained  by  all 5 

4.  Language  is  an  expression  of  personality 6 

5.  Writing  an  autobiography 7 

6.  Neat  and  legible  manuscript 10 

7.  Titles 11 

8.  Dates 12 

9.  Numbers 12 

10.  Capitalization 12 

11.  Abbreviation 13 

12.  Alterations  in  copy 13 

13.  Indication  of  paragraphs 14 

14.  Spelling 14 

15.  Revision  is  indispensable 14 

CHAPTER   IL     EXPLAINING    A   SIMPLE  SUBJECT 

16.  Exposition  of  a  simple  subject      16 

17.  Why  should  I  write  this? 19 

18.  For  whom  shall  I  write? 19 

19.  What  have  I  to  say? 20 

20.  Four  steps  in  outline-making:  mental  inventory,  division, 

arrangement,  development 21 

21.  The  mental  inventory 21 

22.  The  division 26 

23.  The  arrangement 28 

24.  The  development 29 

25.  The  form  of  the  outline 31 

26.  The  outline  promotes  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.    .    .  32 

27.  Paragraphing 33 

28.  Condensed  outlines  for  oral  exposition 34 

29.  Suggestions  for  oral  exposition 37 

30.  Natural  gesture 38 

31.  Criticism  of  oral  expositions 39 

vii 


viii  SYNOPSIS 

CHAPTER   III.     GOOD    SENTENCES 

SECTION  PAGE 

32.  Good  sentences  are  not  accidental  but  deliberate      ....  41 

33.  Sentences  and  clauses  distinguished 42 

34.  Sentences  and  phrases  distinguished 44 

35.  Simple  and  compound  sentences  distinguished 45 

36.  Compound  sentence  must  have  unity:  the  comma  fault      .  45 

37.  Clauses  of  compound  sentence  must  be  co-ordinate  in  mean- 

ing        46 

38.  The  JO  sentence 47 

39.  Punctuation  of  the  compound  sentence 48 

40.  Complex  sentence  has  clauses  of  unequal  rank      48 

41.  Dependent  clause  is  a  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb     ....  49 

42.  Punctuation  of  complex  sentence 50 

43.  Punctuation  of  descriptive  and  restrictive  clauses 50 

44.  Commas  before  and  after  appositive  phrase 50 

45.  Commas  before  and  after  a  parenthetical  expression   ...  51 

46.  Comma  separating  last  members  of  series 51 

47.  Comma  to  set  off  participial  phrase 51 

48.  Use  no  unnecessary  commas 51 

49.  Four  incorrect  commas 52 

50.  Exercise  in  the  syntax  and  punctuation  of  the  sentence   .    .  52 

51.  Compound  sentence  with  complex  clauses 54 

52.  Complex  sentence  with  compound  clauses 55 

53.  Parallel  structure 57 

54.  Exercise  in  sentence-building 58 

55.  Sentences  should  begin  and  end  strongly 60 

56.  Rearrangement  often  improves  coherence 61 

57.  Exercise  in  rearrangement  of  sentences  for  emphasis  and 

coherence      62 

58.  Exercise   in  criticism  of  sentence  structure  in  newspaper 

English      62 


CHAPTER   IV. 
EXPOSITION    OF    PRINCIPLES   AND    OPINIONS 

59.  Exposition  of  more  advanced  subjects 64 

60.  Subjects  for  exposition  of  principles  and  opinions     ....  64 

61.  Exposition,  not  argument,  is  the  aim 66 

62.  The  mental  inventory  still  useful 67 

63.  Eliminating  irrelevant  and  commonplace  matter 75 

64.  Beginning  by  correcting  an  erroneous  or  incomplete  view   .  76 

65.  Divisions  depend  on  the  audience 77 

66.  Five  principles  of  good  exposition      79 


SYNOPSIS    •  ix 

CHAPTER   V.     GOOD    PARAGRAPHS 

SECTION  PAGE 

67.  The  paragraph,  not  the  sentence,  is  the  unit  of  connected 

discourse 81 

68.  A  good  expository  paragraph  has   usually  at  least  five  or 

six  sentences 82 

69.  One-sentence  paragraphs  are  sometimes  desirable     ....  83 

70.  Paragraph  development  means  unfolding  the  ideas  implied 

in,  or  suggested  by,  the  topic  sentence 84 

71.  A  paragraph   may  be  developed  by  illustration,  compari- 

son or  contrast,  causes,  results,  reasons,  inferences   ...  85 

72.  Examples  of  paragraph  development 86 

73.  Exercise  in  paragraph  development 93 

74.  Detached  single  paragraphs  are  used  in  editorial  writing, 

in  written  examinations,  and  in  other  ways 94 

75.  Coherence  within  the  paragraph  requires  orderly  arrange- 

ment        94 

76.  Coherence  within  the  paragraph  requires  suitable  connective 

words  and  phrases 95 

77.  Emphasis  in  the  paragraph  depends  largely  on  arrangement  96 

78.  Exercise  on  coherence  and  emphasis  in  paragraphs   ....  99 

79.  Variety  of  sentence  form  helps  to  make  good  paragraphs   .  100 

80.  Loose  sentences 100 

81.  Periodic  sentences       101 

82.  Balanced  sentences 103 

83.  Exercise  in  variety  of  sentence  form 104 

84.  Final  exercise  in  paragraph  development 105 


CHAPTER  VI.     HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY 

85.  The  use  of  a  Hbrary  must  be  learned  by  practice   ....  108 

86.  Library  regulations  must  be  observed 108 

87.  General  reference  books  are  the  first  tools  for  research    .    .  109 

88.  Dictionaries      109 

89.  General  encyclopedias Ill 

90.  Special  encyclopedias 115 

91.  Biographical  dictionaries 116 

92.  Yearbooks 117 

93.  Atlases  and  gazetteers 119 

94.  How  to  find  other  books 120 

95.  The  card  catalogue 120 

96.  Library  classification      125 

97.  Correct  form  for  a  select  bibliography 129 

98.  Selecting  the  best  books 130 


X  •     *     SYNOPSIS 

SECTION  PACE 

99.  Guide-books  to  the  best  books 132 

100.  Public  documents 134 

101.  library  of  Congress  bibliographies 135 

102.  Indexes  to  periodicals 135 

103.  Relative  value  of  periodicals 138 

104.  Correct  form  for  a  select  bibliography  of  periodical  references  139 

105.  Distribution  of  time  in  reading 141 

106.  How  to  take  library  notes 141 

107.  Thou  shalt  not  steal 144 

CHAPTER   VII.     EXPOSITION    BASED    ON    READING 

108.  Clearness,  interest,  and  force  make  a  good  essay 149 

109.  "Why  should  anybody  read  this?" 150 

110.  Exposition  is  more  than  compilation 151 

111.  Library  notes  take  the  place  of  the  mental  inventory    .    .  152 

112.  Narrowing  down  the  subject 153 

113.  Obvious  divisions  not  always  the  best 155 

114.  Introduction  and  conclusion 156 

115.  Making  the  outline  for  a  long  essay 158 

116.  Paragraphing  in  relation  to  the  outline 159 

117.  Writing  the  essay 162 

118.  Self-criticism  in  English  composition 163 

CHAPTER   VIII.     SPEECHES    FOR   SPECIAL    OCCASIONS 

119.  Public  speaking  outside  the  classroom 168 

120.  Speeches  mingle  exposition,  argument,  and  persuasion    .    .  169 

121.  The  after-dinner  speech 170 

122.  The  nominating  speech 171 

123.  The  congratulatory  speech 172 

124.  The  anniversary  speech 172 

125.  The  eulogistic  speech 173 

126.  Delivery  of  the  speeches 173 

CHAPTER    IX.     LETTER-WRITING 

127.  Correct  form  in  business  letters 175 

128.  The  salutation  in  letters  to  professional  men 176 

129.  Style  in  business  letters 176 

130.  Good  arrangement  of  material 177 

131.  Avoidance  of  stereotyped  phrases 181 

132.  Exercise  in  business  letter-writing    ." 182 

133.  Formal  social  notes 185 

134.  Friendly  letters 187 


SYNOPSIS  xi 
CHAPTER    X.     COLLOQUIAL   ENGLISH 

SECTION  PAGE 

135.  Contractions  in  colloquial  English 189 

136.  Shall  and  will,  should  and  would 190 

137.  The  disappearing  subjunctive  mood 192 

138.  Potential  auxiliaries  in  colloquial  English 193 

139.  Syntax  of  the  colloquial  sentence 194 

140.  Common  errors  in  grammatical  agreement 197 

141.  Agreement  in  sentences  containing  the  phrase  one  of  the   .  198 

142.  Errors  in  the  use  of  conjunctions 199 

143.  Errors  in  the  use  of  prepositions 200 

144.  Diction      201 

145.  Slang 201 

146.  Conversation 202 

147.  Avoid  talking  shop 203 

148.  Conversation  in  novels 204 

CHAPTER    XI.     ARGUMENTATION 

149.  Argumentation  is  exposition  under  fire 205 

150.  Questions  of  fact  and  questions  of  opinion     206 

151.  Analyzing  a  question  to  find  the  issues 208 

152.  Stating  the  question 209 

153.  Defining  the  terms 212 

154.  Comparing  the  contentions  of  the  two  sides 214 

155.  Excluding  irrelevant  points 217 

156.  Enumerating  points  of  agreement 218 

157.  Stating  points  waived 219 

158.  Stating  the  issues 221 

159.  Steps  in  analysis  recapitulated 222 

160.  Proof 224 

161.  The  burden  of  proof 225 

162.  Evidence  and  reasoning 227 

163.  Evidence  of  persons  and  evidence  of  things 228 

164.  Tests  of  evidence 228 

165.  Opinions  are  not  proof 230 

166.  Reasoning  is  defending  one  proposition  by  another      .    .    .  232 

167.  Two  kinds  of  reasoning:  inductive  and  deductive     ....  236 

168.  Proof  arises  from  the  analysis 237 

169.  Direct  proof  and  refutation 240 

170.  The  structure  of  proof 241 

171.  Supporting  the  main  propositions 243 

172.  The  complete  brief 245 

173.  Writing  the  brief 246 

174.  Common  fallacies 247 


xii  SYNOPSIS 

CHAPTER    XII.     WORDS 

SECTION  PACE 

175.  The  relation  of  structure  to  style 252 

176.  The  means  of  winning  interest 254 

177.  Good  style  in  the  general  sense 254 

178.  Style  largely  a  matter  of  specific  words 256 

179.  The  life-history  of  words 256 

180.  Good  usage 257 

181.  Etymology 258 

182.  English  a  Germanic  language 259 

183.  Words  enter  the  language  by  descent,  borrowing,   or  in- 

vention        260 

184.  The  subtle  influence  of  derivation  on  words 261 

185.  The  history  of  robbery  traced  in  words 261 

186.  The  art  of  writing  traced  in  words 263 

187.  The  curious  relationships  of  words  revealed  by  etjTnoIogy  265 

188.  Word-formation  in  English 267 

189.  Latin  words  common  in  English  compounds 268 

190.  Greek  words  common  in  English  compounds 271 

191.  Usage  as  affecting  the  meaning  of  words 274 

192.  Definition 275 

193.  Synonyms 277 

194.  Words  as  conveying  force  and  beauty 278 

195.  Denotation  and  connotation 279 

196.  The  study  of  synonyms 281 

197.  Exercise  in  the  discrimination  of  synonyms 282 

198.  Antonyms 284 

199.  Doublets 284 

200.  Strong  words 285 

201.  Overworked  words 286 

202.  Enlarging  one's  vocabulary 287 


CHAPTER   XIII,     THE   INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE 

203.  Writing  about  books 291 

204.  The  imaginary  audience 292 

205.  The  harmless  pretense  of  discovery 292 

206.  The  three  questions  to  be  answered 293 

207.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  the  age 294 

208.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  the  author's  life 294 

209.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  literary  tendencies 295 

210.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  the  author's  aim 295 

211.  Summary  of  the  story  merely  incidental 295 


SYNOPSIS  xiii 

SECTION  PAGE 

212.  Is  the  book  well  written? 296 

213.  Historical  significance 297 

214.  The  final  question  of  personal  appeal 298 

215.  The  interpretation  of  literature  to  oneself 298 


CHAPTER    XIV.     DESCRIPTION 

216.  Two  kinds  of  description 301 

217.  Literary  description  aims  to  communicate  feeling     ....  302 

218.  Based  on  observation,  imagination,  and  sympathy  ....  302 

219.  The  reader's  memory  supplemented  by  imagination     .    .    .  304 

220.  Selection  of  significant  details 305 

221.  Thin 's  described  in  terms  of  persons 306 

222.  Persons  described  in  terms  of  characteristic  traits   ....  306 

223.  Motion  in  description 307 

224.  Color-words      308 

225.  Taste  and  touch  in  description 309 

226.  Sounds  in  description 309 

227.  The  magical  smell-words 310 

228.  Avoid  words  of  incongruous  connotation 311 

229.  Seek  words  of  appropriate  connotation        313 

230.  A  defense  of  deliberate  search  for  words  in  description    .    .  314 

231.  Words  few  but  choice 315 

232.  Descriptive  writing  usually  implies  a  story 316 

233.  E.xercises  in  description      317 


CHAPTER  XV.  THE  SHORT  STORY 

234.  Short  stories  the  most  popular  form  of  literature      ....  322 

235.  Story-telling  gives  training  in  choice  of  words 322 

236.  Characteristics  of  good  oral  story-telling 323 

237.  The  study  of  the  short  story 324 

238.  Writing  original  stories 326 

239.  A  climax  essential 330 

240.  Beginnings 330 

241.  Omit  unnecessary  details 330 

242.  Unity  in  the  narrative  paragraph 331 

243.  Coherence  in  narration  implicit  rather  than  explicit    .    .    .  332 

244.  Emphasis  in  narration 332 

245.  The  point  of  view  in  narration 333 

246.  The  supposed  narrator 334 

247.  The  revision  of  the  story 335 


xiv  SYNOPSIS 

CHAPTER    XVI. 
HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL    NARRATION 

SECTION  PAGE 

248.  The  historical  imagination 338 

249.  Exposition  in  history 339 

250.  Description  in  history 339 

251.  English  history  studied  in  composition  assignments  ....  340 

252.  Biography  as  the  interpretation  of  personality 342 


CHAPTER    XVII.     COLLEGE    JOURNALISM 

253.  News  writing  and  editorial  writing  are  important  for  students  347 

254.  Many  kinds  of  narrative  are  really  news  writing 347 

255.  Principles  of  news  writing  applicable  to  business  and  pro- 

fessional reports 348 

256.  Economy  of  attention 349 

257.  The  storv  thrice  told       349 

258.  The  head 350 

259.  The  lead 351 

260.  The  body 351 

261.  Details  in  order   of  decreasing  importance 351 

262.  Avoid  weak  conclusions 352 

263.  Avoid  illogical  arrangement 353 

264.  Study  of  actual  newspaper  stories 354 

265.  College  life  yields  few  big  stories      354 

266.  Athletic  reporting 355 

267.  Feature  stories 356 

268.  Interviews 357 

269.  Editorial  writing 358 


CHAPTER    XVIII.     PROGRESS    AND    PROSPECT 

270.  Taking  account  of  stock 360 

271.  The  trial  balance  sheet 361 

Glossary  of  Common  Errors  in  Synt.ax  and  Diction   .  365 

Words  Commonly  Mispronounced 380 

Spelling  Rules        384 

Words  Commonly  Misspelled 384 

Index 387 


FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 


CHAPTER  I 
CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD? 

1.  Language  is  an  attempt  at  communication.  To  be  under- 
stood is  the  first  test  of  good  speaking  and  good  writing.  This 
means  not  merely  the  desire  to  be  understood,  but  the  degree  in 
which  understanding  is  actually  accomplished.  He  who  speaks 
or  writes  well  is  generally  understood.  Language  is  primarily 
articulate  soimd  which  conveys  thought  from  one  mind  to 
another.  It  is  an  attempt  at  communication.  If  the  attempt 
fails,  because  of  poor  voice,  defective  articulation,  false  syntax, 
or  misuse  of  words,  the  speaker  alone  is  responsible.  If  it  fails 
because  of  the  partial  deafness,  the  inattention,  or  the  ignorance 
of  the  hearer,  the  speaker  may  be  blameless,  but  he  has  failed 
nevertheless;  for  to  be  misunderstood,  whatever  the  cause,  is  to 
fail. 

In  other  words,  language  in  its  earliest  and  principal  use  is 
purely  social;  it  is  not  merely  the  expression  of  the  speaker's 
thought  but  the  impression  of  that  thought  upon  the  hearer's 
mind.  It  would  be  well  for  students  of  rhetoric  to  hold  all  their 
work  up  to  this  test:  to  inquire,  in  all  cases  of  imperfect  trans- 
mission of  their  thought,  whether  there  be  not  a  fault  in  the 
transmitter  rather  than  in  the  receiver.  To  speak  clearly  is  to 
be  understood  by  all  normal  hearers  who  are  willing  to  listen. 

The  same  test  may  be  applied  to  the  later  and  more  artificial 
form  of  language  which  appears  as  writing.     If  the  speech- 


2  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

sounds  come  to  be  represented  by  conventional  signs  called 
letters,  designed  to  convey  thought  to  the  brain  by  the  eye 
rather  than  by  the  ear,  then  anything  that  retards  the  transla- 
tion of  letters  into  thought  is  a  barrier,  a  fault,  a  want  of  clear- 
ness. Poor  spelling,  defective  punctuation,  careless  handwriting, 
even  pale  ink,  things  formal  and  unimportant  in  themselves, 
become  vital  when  they  block  the  way  from  mind  to  mind. 
They  are  like  defective  electric  wiring?  a  loose  screw  or  an  un- 
soldered joint  may  simply  break  the  circuit  and  stop  the  machine 
or  may  cause  a  short  circuit  that  will  burn  the  house  down.  Bad 
English  is  like  that;  it  may  either  simply  fail  to  produce  any 
effect  whatever — because  people  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  read 
it  —  or  it  may  short-circuit  somebody's  inflammable  temper  and 
lead  to  a  fire-alarm. 

Now  it  is  plain  that  when  a  man  is  speaking  to  his  brother  he 
may  talk  as  carelessly  as  he  pleases  and  still  be  understood. 
Memoranda  which  he  writes  for  his  own  exclusive  use  may  be 
scribbled  and  scrawled,  without  fear  that  he  cannot  read  them. 
Almost  any  hint  of  words  will  give  the  clew.  The  tones  in  which 
one  rehearses  formulas  or  definitions  in  order  to  memorize  them, 
the  penmanship  of  one's  diary,  are  not  communication  at  all; 
they  involve  no  other  person,  and  are  of  no  consequence  to  the 
world.  They  are  of  consequence  to  him  who  uses  them,  how- 
ever, because  careless  speaking  or  writing  even  in  solitude  tends 
to  weaken  good  habits  and  form  bad  ones.  Therefore  in  all 
discussions  of  good  speaking  and  writing  we  may  safely  disregard 
these  exceptional  private  uses  of  language  and  deal  with  it  as 
having  always  a  social  aim.  That  aim  is  to  place  A's  thought  in 
B's  mind. 

2.  The  relation  of  correctness  to  clearness.  This  transfer  of 
A's  thought  to  B's  mind  can  be  best  managed  by  strict  obedience 
to  logic  and  to  custom:  to  logic,  in  those  rules  of  syntax  and  para- 
grai)h  structure  which  depend  on  the  laws  of  clear  and  correct 
thinking;  to  custom,  in  all  matters  of  spelling,  pronunciation, 


CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD  ?      3 

punctuation,  capitalization,  and  other  formal  details,  as  well  as 
in  the  values  of  words  and  the  irregularities  of  inflection.  Clear- 
ness, then,  involves  two  kinds  of  correctness:  correctness  of 
thinking  and  correctness  of  form.  The  one  is  permanent,  the 
other  transient;  the  one  endures  from  age  to  age,  the  other 
changes  like  the  fashions  of  building  or  of  dress.  Both  are 
equally  important  for  the  learner,  because  slovenly  disregard  for 
good  form  may  do  as  much  to  alienate  and  repel  the  reader,  and 
so  to  prevent  successful  communication  of  thought,  as  careless 
thinking  may  interfere  with  adequate  understanding.  It  is  a 
mistake,  therefore,  to  underrate  the  importance  of  formal  cor- 
rectness in  such  matters  as  spelling  and  punctuation  on  the 
ground  that  the  substance  is  all  that  really  matters.  A  gentle- 
man may  now  and  then  find  himself  with  a  dirty  collar  on;  but 
he  will  be  embarrassed  when  he  discovers  it,  and  will  change  it  as 
soon  as  he  can.  We  do  not  blame  a  poor  man  for  wearing  a 
threadbare  coat,  but  we  see  no  reason  why  it  should  be  muddy 
very  long  after  he  has  had  access  to  a  brush. 

Sometimes,  it  is  true,  clearness  is  achieved  without  correctness. 
An  illiterate  foreman  addressing  a  gang  of  laborers  may  speak 
with  great  vigor,  perfect  clearness,  and  shocking  incorrectness. 
He  has  achieved  communication ;  but  he  has  offended  the  ear 
and  fractured  the  parts  of  speech.  A  letter  may  be  so  quaintly 
misspelled  as  to  afford  indulgent  amusement  to  the  educated 
reader.  For  such  violations  of  correctness  an  immigrant  or  an 
unlettered  laborer  is  freely  pardoned,  because  his  Ufe  has  fur- 
nished no  better  models.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  young  men 
and  young  women  on  whom  society  has  bestowed  twelve  years 
of  costly  education  attempt  to  substitute  for  the  English  lan- 
guage a  slovenly  jargon  and  illegible  script,  they  need  not  expect 
equal  consideration.  A  college  student  too  lazy  to  say  "yes," 
preferring  the  abominable  "yeah"  or  "eh-yuh"  of  current  speech, 
is  in  no  danger  of  being  misunderstood;  he  communicates  his 
assent,  also  perhaps  a  degree  of  imbecility  beyond  his  immediate 


4  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

intention.  A  phrase  phonetically  indicated  thus:  "Whatcha- 
gonadoboutit?"  is  easily  interpreted  by  any  American  to  mean 
"What  are  you  going  to  do  about  it?"  The  lack  is  not  one  of 
clearness.  "Listen,"  says  a  college  girl  at  the  beginning  of  every 
remark  to  her  classmate.  She  is  clear  enough:  she  demands  by 
the  crude  imperative  an  attention  which  she  might  not  otherwise 
receive.  The  implied  discourtesy  escapes  her;  it  does  not  escape 
those  possibly  too  intolerant  hearers  who  judge  her  rather 
severely  by  her  shrill  voice  and  her  crudities  of  speech.  To 
speak  correctly,  without  affected  precision  and  without  self- 
consciousness,  is  a  form  of  good  manners. 

Americans  are  perhaps  no  greater  offenders  against  the 
integrity  of  spoken  English  than  are  the  people  of  Great  Britain. 
If  we  may  judge  by  the  clipped  speech  and  the  abundant  slang 
of  young  Englishmen  and  English  women,  met  with  either  in 
person  or  in  recent  English  novels  and  plays,  they  take  as  great 
liberties  with  the  language  as  any  of  us.  But  to  foreigners  from 
other  parts  of  the  world  it  is  a  matter  for  unending  bewilderment 
that  so  few  educated  speakers  of  English  seem  to  try  to  speak  it 
as  well  as  they  can.  A  careless,  negligent  ease  seems  to  be  the 
effect  aimed  at,  and  generally  attained.  Only  after  some  exper- 
ience of  life  does  one  realize  that  many  successful  men  are 
respected  not  because  of,  but  in  spite  of,  their  slipshod  talk.  It 
is  not  in  itself  a  proof  either  of  sincerity  or  of  intelligence. 

Correctness  in  written  English  rests  upon  a  somewhat  different 
basis.  Some  excuse  for  errors  in  spelling  and  grammar  is  sought 
by  some  defenders  of  incompetence  in  the  inconsistencies  and 
arbitrary  distinctions  of  the  English  language.  It  is  a  queer 
language  in  some  ways;  that  must  be  admitted.  But  if  in  some 
points  correctness  means  following  an  irrational  custom  of  the 
race,  it  is  still  the  business  of  learners  to  conform.  A  freshman 
who  does  not  know  the  difference  between  to  and  too  in  his  own 
writing  may  be  overjoyed  to  learn  that  there  was  originally  no 
distinction  —  that  they  are  historically  the  same  word.     He  may 


CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD  ?       5 

think  to  excuse  his  confusion  of  the  aimliaries  shall  and  will 
when  he  discovers  that  the  present  usage  is  not  older  than  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  that  American  indifference  to  the 
niceties  of  the  accepted  rules  is  perhaps  destined  to  change  the 
usage  once  more.  But  in  all  these  and  many  other  matters  upon 
which  usage  shifts,  slowly  and  not  always  logically,  there  is  no 
ground  for  present  uncertainty.  That  which  is  now  regarded  as 
standard  English  is  always  discoverable  in  the  latest  dictionaries 
and  grammars.  It  may  change,  either  for  the  better  or  for  the 
worse  —  and  language  degenerates  more  easily  than  it  improves. 
But  it  is  no  business  of  ours  to  drag  it  down.  Those  who  would 
command  must  first  obey.  Those  who  would  learn  to  use  the 
mother  tongue  with  freedom  and  with  power,  bending  it  to  meet 
the  demands  of  advancing  thought,  must  begin  by  using  it  with 
decent  respect.  The  language  has  its  rights.  It  is  ours  to  use, 
not  to  abuse;  it  rewards  familiarity,  but  not  contempt. 

3.  Clearness  and  correctness  can  be  attained  by  all.  Any 
normal  person  with  a  good  high  school  education  can  master  in 
one  year,  if  he  has  not  already  mastered,  reasonable  clearness  and 
correctness  in  language.  To  this  statement  there  are  no  excep- 
tions. It  is  true  that  not  all  freshmen  can  learn  all  there  is  for 
freshmen  to  know  about  writing  English.  Language  has  far 
more  difficult  problems  than  mere  clearness  and  correctness. 
To  speak  or  write  so  as  to  ^in  interest,  sympathy,  conviction, 
delight,  is  to  practice  a  fine  art.  Attainment  here  is  a  matter  of 
degree.  All  may  achieve  by  reasonable  effort  some  success  in 
this  art  of  using  words  to  communicate  pleasure  as  well  as  under- 
standing. Those  least  gifted  with  imagination  may  improve 
surprisingly  under  proper  guidance.  Yet  it  is  only  fair  to  admit 
that  in  any  group  of  students  there  are  some  who  -^-ill  never  go 
far  along  this  path.  Their  talents  lie  elsewhere  than  in  using 
language  to  convey  feeling,  to  interest  and  to  inspire.  But 
these  artistic  aspects  of  English  composition  are  not  prominent 
in  a  required  elementary  course  like  this;  they  hardly  appear  in 


6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  earlier  part  of  the  term,  and  at  no  time  are  indispensable  to 
respectable  and  creditable  work  in  the  course.  Therefore  no 
student  can  honestly  start  out  with  the  feeling,  "This  is  not  in 
my  line;  I  never  could  write  well;  English  was  always  hard  for 
me."  The  required  assignments  of  freshman  composition  call 
•  less  for  talent  than  for  industry  and  intelligence.  The  course  is 
intended  not  to  train  professional  writers  but  to  develop  in  all  a 
reasonable  efficiency  in  that  use  of  the  mother  tongue  which  is 
indispensable  in  any  business  or  profession.  All  need  it;  all  can 
attain  it  in  some  degree ;  all  will  come  to  value  it  in  proportion  as 
they  strive  for  it. 

4.  Language  is  an  expression  of  personality.  Effective  com- 
munication of  one's  thought  by  means  of  clearness  and.  correct- 
ness in  language  is  dependent  in  no  small  degree  upon  person- 
ality. The  way  in  which  we  write  and  speak  shows  what  we 
are.  The  previous  history  of  the  writer  or  speaker  limits  and 
shapes  all  his  powers  of  expression ;  and  nowhere  is  this  limitation 
more  evident  than  in  freshman  composition.  It  is  only  fair  to 
a  freshman  that  his  teacher  should  know  at  the  outset  who  and 
what  he  is;  what  have  been  his  special  advantages  or  disadvan- 
tages for  the  study  of  English;  what  are  his  chief  interests  and 
ambitions.  Neither  in  mathematics,  nor  in  chemistry,  nor  in 
beginning  the  study  of  a  foreign  language,  does  it  make  the 
slightest  difference — provided  that  entrance  requirements  have 
been  fully  met  —  whether  he  comes  from  the  farm  or  the  city; 
whether  his  father  is  a  merchant,  a  physician,  or  a  mechanic; 
whether  he  has  grown  up  among  books,  or  among  comic  supj)lc- 
ments  and  moving  picture  theaters.  In  rhetoric  it  does  make  a 
great  deal  of  difference.  Both  in  the  matter  and  in  the  manner 
of  his  writing  —  what  he  has  to  say  and  how  he  tends  to  say  it 
—  previous  experience  and  training  count  for  much.  A  fresh- 
man has  only  himself  to  blame  if  he  lets  the  months  pass  while 
silently  resenting  the  misplaced  criticisms  of  an  instructor  who 
does  not  know  why  he  is  what  he  is.     He  has  his  chance  at  the 


CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD  ?   7 

very  start,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  phrase,  to  make  himself 
understood. 

5.  Writing  an  autobiography.  An  autobiography,  therefore, 
is  a  good  subject  for  the  first  piece  of  written  work.  Of  the  three 
questions  that  always  arise  when  one  sits  down  to  write, 

WHY    SHOULD   I   WRITE   THIS? 
WHAT   HAVE    I    TO    SAY? 
HOW   SHALL  I    SAY   IT? 

the  first  has  already  been  answered.  It  was  answered  on  the 
basis  of  purpose  —  the  purj^ose  of  informing  the  teacher,  who 
really  wants  to  know,  as  to  who  you  are  and  why  you  have  come 
to  college.  The  second  question  is  likewise  to  be  answered  on 
the  basis  of  purpose.  What  does  the  teacher,  who  in  this  case 
is  likely  to  be  the  only  reader,  need  to  know  about  your  history? 
The  purpose  of  a  piece  of  writing  or  of  a  speech  is  always  to  be 
discovered  by  considering  the  special  needs  and  interests  of  the 
probable  reader  or  audience.  Let  us  see  how  this  works  out  in 
the  case  of  an  autobiography  to  be  handed  in  at  the  second 
meeting  of  a  freshman  class  in  composition.  What  should  such 
a  sketch  contain?  In  other  words,  what  does  the  teacher  prob- 
ably need  to  know  in  order  to  get  acquainted  with  his  class  —  a 
sort  of  "Who's  Who,  and  Why?" 

We  may  first  rule  out  some  things  that  many  writers  think  of 
first  when  an  autobiography  is  suggested.  The  instructor  will 
not  be  interested  in  an  introductory  paragraph  apologizing  for 
the  apparent  egotism  of  writing  about  yourself;  for  he  has  asked 
you  to  do  just  that  thing.  He  will  not  care  to  wade  through 
your  more  or  less  successful  attempts  at  a  humorous  description 
of  your  infancy  and  tender  years.  Humor  is  all  very  well  in  its 
way,  but  this  particular  theme  is  not  the  place  for  it,  because  it 
will  waste  time  and  space  that  should  be  given  to  more  important 
matters.  What  he  wants  is  facts.  What  sort  of  facts?  Such  as 
these : 


8  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

I.  Early  life: 

1.  When  and  where  were  you  born? 

2.  What  is,  or  was,  your  father's  occupation? 

3.  What  primary  and  grammar  schools  did  you  attend? 

4.  Were  there  any  severe  illnesses,  family  changes,  or  other  important 

events  which  determined  your  early  Ufe? 

II.  High  school  training: 

5.  In  what  high  school,  or  schools,  did  you  prepare  for  college? 

6.  Which  subjects  did  you  find  easiest,  which  hardest? 

7.  To  what  extent  did  you  enter  into  high  school  athletics,  journaHsm, 

debating,  dramatics,  musical  clubs? 

8.  Were  there  any  long  interruptions  or  unusual  changes  in  your  high 

school  course,  due  to  illness,  removal  from  one  place  to  another, 
or  other  causes?  (Any  physical  handicap,  such  as  partial  deaf- 
ness, extreme  nearsightedness,  or  stammering,  should  be  men- 
tioned here  or  under  4.) 

ni.     Personal  experience  outside  the  school : 

9.  How  have  you  spent  your  recent  summers? 

10.  What  wage-earning  work  have  you  done? 

11.  Have  you  ever  traveled  more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  home? 

If  so,  where? 

12.  Have  you  any  hobby  or  specialty  (apart  from  athletics),  such  as 

collecting,  bird  study,  electrical  experiments,  music? 

IV.  Reading : 

13.  Do  you  often  read  books,  aside  from  those  required  in  connection 

with  your  studies?  What  sort  of  books  do  you  like  best? 
What  books,  aside  from  school  requirements,  have  you  read 
during  the  past  two  years? 

1 4.  Who  are  your  favorite  novelists? 

1 5.  Do  you  care  for  poetry?     What  poetry  do  you  like  best? 

16.  Do  you  read  a  daily  newspaper  regularly?     What  paper  do  you 

prefer? 

1 7.  What  weekly  or  monthly  periodicals  do  you  regularly  or  frequently 

read? 

V.  Purpose  in  entering  college: 

18.  What  occupation  do  you  expect  to  enter,  or  to  what  do  you  at 

present  incline? 

19.  What  course  shall  you  pursue  in  college,  with  what  probable 

specialization?     Why  have  you  chosen  it? 


CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD  ?     9 

20.    Why  did  you  choose  this  college  or  university,  rather  than  another? 
Was  any  alumnus  or  undergraduate  of  this  institution  instru- 
mental in  determining  your  choice?     How  long  do  you  plan- 
.     to  stay?     What  do  you  think  this  college  stands  for? 

Given  the  answer  to  the  first  two  questions  — "Why  should 
I  write  this?  What  have  I  to  say?" — you  have  still  to  deter- 
mine "How  shall  I  say  it?"  The  answer  is,  say  it  as  briefly  as 
possible  without  loss  of  clearness  and  interest.  There  is  to  be 
no  waste  of  words,  but  on  the  other  hand  no  obscurity  or  dull- 
ness due  to  excessive  brevity.  It  is  not  like  filling  in  answers 
to  printed  questions  on  a  blank  form;  an  autobiography  made 
up  of  detached  statements  like  those  written  on  a  questionnaire 
or  application  blank  would  be  neither  clear  nor  interesting.  The 
purpose  of  presenting  these  twenty  questions  is  not  to  prescribe 
a  theme  made  up  of  twenty  sentences  answering  them  by  rote; 
rather  it  is  to  show  how  many  biographical  details  there  are, 
even  in  an  uneventful  career  of  seventeen  or  eighteen  years,  that 
may  be  interesting  to  tell  and  to  read  about.  Some  liberty  of 
choice  among  the  topics  here  suggested  is  to  be  expected ;  some 
may  be  omitted,  others  added;  some  passed  over  in  a  word  or 
two,  others  expanded  when  they  seem  to  need  fuller  treatment. 

Liberty  of  arrangement  into  paragraphs  is  also  expected. 
Five  paragraphs  may  be  too  many  or  too  few  for  the  material  at 
hand:  too  many,  if  all  there  is  to  say  about  the  first  eight  ques- 
tions can  be  readily  combined  into  a  short  paragraph;  too  few, 
if,  for  example,  exceptional  circumstances  demand  a  whole 
paragraph  for  question  8,  or  10,  or  11.  Let  the  material  deter- 
mine the  paragraphing,  remembering  that  a  paragraph  is  a 
unified  group  of  sentences.  This  principle  will  also  require  the 
tying  together  of  the  sentences  in  some  sort  of  coherence.  If 
coherence  requires,  the  material  may  be  differently  arranged; 
or  connecting  links  may  be  supphed  to  show  how  one  thing  has 
led  to  another. 

Attention  to  these  suggestions  for  arrangement  and  grouping 


lo  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

will  partly  answer  the  question  ''How  shall  I  say  it?"  But  in 
addition  to  these,  formill  correctness  in  the  manuscript,  that  is, 
correctness  of  appearance,  correctness  in  matters  that  appear  to 
the  eye,  is  of  importance  from  the  very  beginning.  Certain 
points  of  formal  correctness  which  should  be  observed  in  this 
first  theme,  and  in  all  subsequent  themes  of  the  year,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  remaining  paragraphs  of  this  chapter.  "Can  you 
make  yourself  understood?"  is  the  subject  of  the  chapter;  and 
to  make  oneself  understood  as  a  careful  and  competent  person 
by  careful  and  competent  writing  is  now  the  problem. 

6.  Neat  and  legible  manuscript.  The  generally  accepted  size 
of  paper  for  most  written  or  ty^^ewritten  material  of  every  sort 
except  personal  letters  is  either  eight  by  ten  and  one-half  inches, 
or  eight  and  one-half  by  eleven  inches.  One  or  the  other  of 
these  sizes  should  be  used  in  all  college  essays  and  reports  except 
when  otherwise  directed.  Only  one  side  of  the  paper  should  be 
written  on.  A  margin  of  at  least  an  inch  should  be  left  at  each 
side  of  the  page.  All  pages  after  the  first  should  be  numbered 
at  the  top.  The  theme  should  be  folded  vertically  in  the  center, 
and  on  the  outside  of  the  last  sheet  near  the  top  should  be 
endorsed  the  number  of  the  course,  the  letter  of  the  section,  the 
writer's  name,  and  the  date. 

Handwriting  should  be  the  best  of  which  the  writer  is  capable; 
and  a  student  incapable  of  writing  a  hand  that  is  easily  and 
rapidly  read  should  buy  or  rent  a  typewriter.  The  commonest 
causes  of  illegibility,  apart  from  carelessness  and  haste,  are  pale 
ink  and  overcrowding  of  words  and  lines.  A  space  of  at  least 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  between  words  —  three-sixteenths  or  more 
if  one  writes  a  large  hand  —  is  necessary  for  easy  reading.  Half 
an  inch  between  sentences  is  not  too  much.  If  unruled  paper  is 
used,  the  lines  of  writing  should  be  exactly  parallel  to  the  top 
edge  of  the  sheet,  and  far  enough  apart  so  that  the  loop  letters  of 
consecutive  lines  will  not  overlap.  The  letters  should  be 
rounded,  rather  than  angular.      The  slope  should  be  slight,  as 


CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD?     ii 

nearly  vertical  as  convenient.  Capitals  should  be  readily  dis- 
tinguishable from  small  letters.  In  all  these  matters  the  student 
should  seek  to  save  time  and  trouble — not  for  himself,  as  he  has 
perhaps  been  accustomed  to  do  —  but  for  the  person  who  will 
have  to  read  what  he  writes.  It  is  a  fact  that  of  two  essays  of 
equal  merit  in  substance  one  of  which  is  typewritten,  or  very 
clearly  written  by  hand,  and  the  other  written  in  a  cramped, 
oblique  hand  with  pale  ink,  the  former  will  nearly  always  re- 
ceive the  more  favorable  consideration;  and  there  is  no  reason 
why  this  should  not  be  so.  Legibility  is  the  first  essential  in 
effective  written  communication.  It  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
gift  of  nature,  like  the  color  of  one's  hair  or  the  shape  of  one's 
nose.  Even  at  college  age,  a  notably  bad  penmanship  can  be 
improved  by  intelligent  effort. 

7.  Titles.  Every  composition  longer  than  a  single  paragraph 
should  have  a  title.  The  first  word  of  a  title  and  all  the  impor- 
tant words  in  it  should  be  capitalized;  that  is,  the  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, verbs,  adjectives,  adverbs,  but  not  (excepting  the  first 
word  of  the  title)  articles,  prepositions,  or  conjunctions.  No 
period  is  used  after  a  title  standing  at  the  head  of  a  composition, 
nor  should  quotation  marks  inclose  it  when  standing  in  that 
position.     Example: 

Who  I  Am  and  Why  I  Came  to  College 

When,  however,  the  title  of  an  essay,  a  chapter  in  a  book,  or 
any  short  composition  appears  in  connected  discourse  as  part  of 
a  sentence,  it  is  quoted;  but  not  otherwise.  Book  titles  and  the 
names  of  magazines  and  newspapers  are  generally  italicized  in 
book  printing,  the  equivalent  for  which  in  manuscript  is  under- 
lining.    Examples: 

Our  first  assignment  was  an  essay  on  "Who  I  Am  and  Why  I  Came  to 
CoUege." 

We  studied  "Sweetness  and  Light"  in  Matthew  Arnold's  Culture  and 
Anarchy. 

The  article,  which  originally  appeared  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  has  been 


12  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

quoted  in  many  leading  newspapers  such  as  the  New  York  Times  and  the 
Chicago  Tribune. 

8.  Dates.  The  date  of  a  year  should  always  be  expressed  in 
figures,  not  in  words  (1918,  not  "nineteen  hundred  and  eighteen," 
nor  "nineteen  eighteen"),  except  in  legal  documents  and  formal 
social  notes  and  announcements.  The  day  of  the  month  should 
also  usually  be  expressed  in  figures,  without  accompanying 
letters  such  as  -///,  -st  (March  14,  April  i,  July  3,  rather  than 
March  14th,  April  ist,  July  3d).  When,  however,  the  number 
of  the  day  appears  before  the  name  of  the  month,  or  without 
the  month,  the  form  may  be  either  "the  14th  of  March"  or 
"the  fourteenth  of  March."     Example: 

I  was  graduated  from  high  school  on  June  20,  1922,  and  on  the  25th  of 
the  same  month  we  sailed  for  Europe. 

9.  Numbers.  Except  in  writing  dates  and  sums  of  money, 
numbers  under  one  hundred  should  ordinarily  be  spelled  out. 
"It  is  forty-two  miles  from  here."  "I  am  nineteen  years  old." 
For  numbers  over  one  hundred,  figures  are  generally  used  ("The 
distance  is  143  miles"),  except  for  round  numbers  in  even  hun- 
dreds or  thousands  which  can  be  expressed  by  two  or  three 
words.  ("They  have  over  eight  hundred  students.")  Sums  of 
money  less  than  a  dollar  are  usually  spelled  out,  except  in  adver- 
tising and  in  business  letters.  Larger  sums  are  usually  expressed 
in  figures  with  the  dollar  sign,  except  a  round  number  stated  as 
an  estimate.  ("It  cost  ^3.75  last  winter."  "His  salary  must 
be  as  much  as  three  thousand.")  Sums  in  even  dollars  without 
cents  should  have  no  decimal  point  or  ciphers  after  the  last 
significant  figure.     ("He  is  earning  $35  a  week.") 

10.  Capitalization.  Proper  nouns  should  be  capitalized.  A 
proper  noun  is  the  name  of  a  particular  person,  place,  organiza- 
tion, or  historic  event.  In  a  proper  name  of  two  or  more  words, 
such  as  Mississippi  River,  Washington  Street,  General  Electric 
Company,  all  the  nouns  and  adjectives  are  generally  capitalized 


CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD  ?     13 

in  book  and  magazine  printing.  In  newspaper  style  the  last 
word  in  each  of  the  three  phrases  above  cited  would  begin  with 
a  small  letter.  This  style  does  not  prevail  in  ordinary  writing; 
only  in  "copy"  intended  for  newspaper  publication.  Capitals 
are  also  used  for  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns,  such  as 
the  names  of  languages.  Except  in  a  title  or  in  beginning  a 
sentence,  common  nouns  should  not  be  capitalized.  Such  words 
as  freshman,  sophomore,  high  school,  are  common  nouns  and 
should  begin  with  small  letters.  On  the  other  hand,  Senior 
Class  is  a  proper  noun;  Johnstown  High  School  is  a  proper  noun. 
The  names  of  studies,  or  branches  of  learning,  such  as  chemistry, 
history,  economics,  rhetoric,  occupying  a  peculiar  grammatical 
position,  are  not  now  generally  capitalized  (the  names  of  lan- 
guages, Latin,  English,  French,  derived  from  proper  adjectives, 
being  nevertheless  always  capitalized).  The  title  of  a  college 
course,  however,  like  History  i.  Chemistry  5,  is  a  proper  noun  and 
is  therefore  capitalized. 

11.  Abbreviation.  No  abbreviations  should  ordinarily  be 
used  in  college  compositions  or  in  personal  letters  except  Mr., 
Mrs.,  Dr.,  and  academic  titles  such  as  M.D.,  LL.D.  It  is 
preferable  not  to  abbreviate  the  names  of  months  or  states.  The 
recognized  abbreviations  of  a  particular  science  or  profession 
may  be  used  in  technical  writing,  such  as  A.C.  for  alternating 
current,  c.c.  for  cubic  centimeters,  etc.  Words  like  president, 
professor,  secretary,  company,  should  be  spelled  out.  Even  in 
business  letters  the  present  tendency  is  to  use  few  abbreviations 
except  for  technical  business  phrases. 

12.  Alterations  in  copy.  Words  inserted  after  a  page  is 
copied  should  be  written  above  the  line,  with  a  caret  indicating 
the  place  where  they  belong.  An  inserted  passage  more  than  a 
line  in  length,  however,  should  not  be  run  over  to  the  next  line 
or  to  the  margin;  the  page  should  be  recopied.  A  word  or  a 
short  phrase  all  on  one  line  may  be  transposed  from  one  place  to 
another  by  drawing  a  loop  around  it,  connected  by  a  line  with 


14  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

a  caret  at  the  point  of  insertion;  but  a  longer  phrase  cannot 
usually  be  so  transposed  without  confusion.  To  indicate  the 
omission  of  a  word  or  phrase  a  horizontal  line  should  be  drawn 
through  it;  it  is  incorrect  to  use  parentheses  for  this  purpose. 

13.  Indication  of  paragraphs.  The  first  word  of  a  paragraph 
should  be  indented.  No  blank  space  at  the  end  of  a  line  should 
be  left  after  any  sentence  in  a  paragraph  but  the  last.  In  the 
revision  of  copy  a  paragraph  division  not  indicated  by  indention 
may  be  marked,  without  recopying,  by  the  paragraph  sign  *!. 
An  incorrect  indention  may  be  corrected  by  writing  "no  para- 
graph" in  the  margin. 

14.  Spelling.  Errors  in  spelling,  whether  due  to  madvertence 
or  to  ignorance,  disfigure  any  manuscript,  delay  the  reader,  and 
give  an  impression  of  incompetence.  English  spelling  is  con- 
fessedly illogical,  and  somewhat  difficult  for  those  to  whom 
correctness  is  not  a  sort  of  second  nature.  But  in  most  cases  the 
habitual  errors  of  any  one  writer  are  comparatively  few,  and 
may  be  eliminated  by  systematic  attention.  The  spelling  rules 
and  the  list  of  words  commonly  misspelled,  found  in  the  appendix 
to  this  book,  together  with  the  use  of  a  dictionary,  should  enable 
any  student  to  remove  from  his  written  work  a  weakness  so 
trivial,  and  yet  so  disastrous  a  hindrance  to  success  in  composi- 
tion. 

15.  Revision  is  indispensable.  To  submit  to  another  person 
for  reading  a  composition  which  the  writer  has  not  taken  the 
trouble  to  read  is  little  short  of  an  insult.  Some  business  men 
have  used  in  their  correspondence  a  rubber  stamp  reading 
"Dictated  but  not  read."  Seldom  indeed  will  the  person  who 
receives  a  letter  so  labeled  be  favorably  impressed.  Revision 
means  the  careful  reading  over  of  the  composition  (i)  for  the 
correction  of  inadvertent  omissions  and  repetitions  of  words; 
(2)  for  the  correction  of  all  errors  in  spelling,  punctuation,  and 
syntax  which  the  writer  can  himself  detect;  (3)  for  such  improve- 
ments in  the  choice  and  order  of  the  words  as  time  permits. 


CAN  YOU  MAKE  YOURSELF  UNDERSTOOD?    15 

Even  if  in  some  special  case  it  is  impracticable  to  cover  the  third 
point  named,  it  is  inexcusable  to  omit  the  first  two.  To  put 
one's  name  on  any  original  composition,  whether  an  English 
theme,  a  paper  for  some  other  class,  or  an  examination  book, 
ought  always  to  mean,  not  "There  may  be  some  slips  in  this 
which  I  could  correct  if  I  chose  to  take  the  trouble,"  but  "This 
is  the  best  that  I  can  do." 

Suggested  Assignment 

Assignment  i.  Read  Chapter  I,  and  write  an  autobiographical  sketch 
based  upon  the  questions  in  section  5.  Revise  the  first  draft  for  capitaUza- 
tion,  expression  of  dates,  and  other  points  mentioned  in  sections  7-1 1,  as 
well  as  for  spelling  and  punctuation,  and  copy  it  for  presentation  to  the 
instructor. 


CHAPTER  II 

EXPLAINING  A   SIMPLE   SUBJECT 

16.  Exposition  of  a  simple  subject.  Simple  material,  simply 
presented  on  the  basis  of  a  suggested  outline,  as  in  the  auto- 
biography, leads  naturally  to  a  second  step,  namely,  an  exposi- 
tion, or  explanation,  of  a  subject  for  which  the  writer  makes  his 
own  outline.  For  such  a  study  in  the  method  of  analyzing  and 
outlining  a  subject  it  is  desirable  that  thoroughly  familiar 
material  should  be  employed,  but  material  in  the  arrangement 
of  which  some  variety  is  possible.  A  list  of  suitable  subjects 
follows,  from  which  the  student  may  choose  one  with  which  he 
is  already  suiBciently  acquainted  to  explain  it  clearly  and  with 
interest.  For  this  assignment  no  one  should  select  a  subject 
with  the  intention  of  "reading  it  up;"  indeed,  no  reading  should 
be  done  in  preparation  for  this  particular  theme  —  only  thinking. 

Subjects  for  Simple  Exposition 

1.  Planning  a  Small  Summer  Cottage  for  Economy  and  Comfort 

2.  Advantages  of  the  Bungalow  T>'i)e  for  Suburban  Residences 

3.  The  Ideal  Living  Room 

4.  A  Model  Kitchen 

5.  The  Lighting  of  Residences 

6.  Building  a  Fireplace 

7.  Comparison  of  Heating  by  Steam,  Hot  Water,  and  Hot  Air  for  Resi- 

dences 

8.  Sanitary  Precautions  in  the  Village  Home 

9.  Principles  of  Color  Harmony  in  Home  Decoration  and  Furnishing 

10.  Choosing  an  Oriental  Rug 

11.  The  Proper  Framing  and  Hanging  of  Pictures 

12.  Effective  Planting  of  a  Small  City  Lot 

13.  Simplifying  Housework 

16 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  17 

14.  Labor-saving  Devices  for  the  Housekeeper 

15.  Different  Types  of  Vacuum  Cleaners 

16.  Cooking  with  Gas  and  with  Coal 

17.  Fireless  Cookers  and  How  to  Use  Them 

18.  Planning  Meals  for  Economy  and  Nutrition 

19.  Vegetarian  Cooking 

20.  New  Methods  of  Home  Canning  for  Fruit  and  Vegetables 

21.  Chemistry  in  the  Kitchen 

22.  The  Warfare  against  Dust 

23.  The  Care  of  a  Piano 

24.  The  Problem  of  Domestic  Service 

25.  Vacant  Lot  Gardening 

26.  Spraying  Fruit 

27.  The  Best-Paying  Variety  of  Apples 

28.  Developing  a  Young  Orchard 

29.  Essentials  of  a  IModel  Dairy 

30.  Is  There  Much  Profit  in  Poultry? 

31.  High  Freight  Rates  and  the  Farmer 

32.  The  Importance  of  Good  Roads  to  the  Farmer 

33.  Simple  Cement  Work  on  the  Farm 

34.  Farm  Drainage 

35.  How  to  Keep  Farm  Accounts 

36.  Dry  Farming 

37.  Intensive  Farming 

37.  Uses  of  Dynamite  on  the  Farm 

39.  The  Timber  Lot 

40.  What  the  Experiment  Stations  are  Doing  for  the  Farmer 

41.  The  Farm  Labor  Problem 

42.  Insectivorous  Birds  and  the  Farmer 

43.  Does  it  Pay  to  Keep  Sheep? 

44.  Abandoned  Farms 

45.  Scientific  Farming  as  a  Career  for  College  Men 

46.  Comparison  of  the  Leading  T^-pewriters 

47.  Comparison  of  the  Mimeograph  and  the  Multigraph  for  Business  or 

School  Use 

48.  A  Small  Job  Printing  Outfit  and  How  to  Use  It 

49.  Explanation  of  the  Lintoype 

50.  Explanation  of  the  Monot3^e 

51.  Paper-Making 

52.  High-Grade  Photographic  Lenses  and  Shutters  and  Their  Value 

53.  Artistic  Portrait  Photography 


i8  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

54.  The  Photostat  Process 

55.  The  Half -Tone  Process 

56.  The  Zinc-Etching  Process 

57.  Lathe  Work 

58.  A  Stamping  Factory 

59.  The  Work  of  a  Foundry 

60.  A  Blast  Furnace 

61.  Modem  Ship-Building 

62.  Road-Building 

63.  The  Care  of  a  Motor  Car 

64.  Carburetion  and  Carburetors 

65.  Dififerent  Types  of  Transmission  Gear 

66.  Care  and  Recharging  of  Storage  Batteries 

67.  The  Wiring  System  of  a  Motor  Car 

68.  Automobile  Touring 

69.  Airplane  Motors 

70.  The  Care  of  a  Motor  Boat 

7 1 .  Sailing  a  Boat 

72.  Camping  Outfits 

73.  Trout  Fishing 

74.  Duck  Shooting 

75.  Teaching  a  Boy  to  Swim 

76.  Training  for  Distance  Running 

77.  The  Equipment  and  Management  of  a  Small  Playground 

78.  First  Aid  to  the  Injured 

79.  Keeping  Fit 

80.  Colds  and  How  to  Avoid  Them 

81.  Corrective  Gymnastics 

82.  Sensible  Dress  for  Students 

83.  The  Importance  of  Pure  Drinking  Water 

84.  The  Importance  of  Pure  Milk 

85.  Avoidance  of  Common  Infections 

86.  The  Ventilation  of  School  Buildings 

87.  Outdoor  Sleeping 

88.  Desirable  Residence  Districts  in  This  City 

89.  How  Can  Our  City  be  Beautified? 

90.  Good  Citizenship  for  College  Students 

91.  Housing  Conditions  in  This  City 

92.  Vocational  Guidance 

93.  Social  Welfare  Work  in  Local  Factories 

94.  The  Duties  of  a  Department  Store  Salesman 


95 
96 

97 
98 

99 

lOO, 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE   SUBJECT  19 

Effective  Advertising  of  a  Certain  Class  of  Goods 

Present  Status  of  the  Boy  Scout  Movement 

The  Work  of  the  Local  Y.  M.  C.  A.  (or  Y.  W.  C.  A.) 

The  Student  Volunteer  Movement 

The  Improvement  of  Sunday  School  Teaching 

The  Importance  of  Good  English  in  a  Certain  Vocation  (for  engineers, 

for  chemists,  for  physicians,  etc.) 


1 7.  Why  should  I  write  this?  In  this  list  of  a  hundred  sub- 
jects there  are  at  least  a  few  on  which  any  student  has  some 
special  knowledge,  or  has  ideas  more  clearly  defined  and  more 
firmly  held  than  the  majority  of  the  class.  An  opportunity  now 
arises  to  tell  something  worth  while  to  people  who  are  ready  to 
learn.  This  is  the  first  motive  for  good  work:  to  use  material 
derived  from  your  own  experience  in  order  to  contribute  to  the 
common  stock  of  information  for  the  common  good.  The  other 
motive,  which  holds  good  whether  the  exposition  is  actually 
communicated  to  the  class  or  not,  is  to  show  yourself  and  to 
show  your  teacher  that  you  are  competent  to  explain  a  familiar 
topic  in  a  thoroughly  clear,  correct,  and  interesting  way. 

18.  For  whom  shall  I  write?  In  order  to  succeed  in  both 
of  these  aims,  it  will  be  necessary  in  choosing  a  subject  to  con- 
sider the  particular  sort  of  reader  or  audience  to  whom  it  is  to 
be  presented.  The  reader  is  to  be  thought  of  as  an  intelligent 
person  who  knows  something  about  the  subject,  but  not  much. 
One  will  not  undertake  to  explain  the  care  of  a  motor-car  to  a 
person  who  has  never  seen  the  inside  of  one,  but  to  the  son  of 
a  man  who  has  recently  purchased  his  first  car.  Camping  out- 
fits will  be  discussed  for  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced  camper. 
Model  kitchens  will  be  described  to  people  who  have  worked  in 
kitchens  that  are  not  models.  A  blast  furnace  or  a  linot5^pe 
machine  is  to  be  explained  to  those  who  know  merely  that  the 
finished  product  of  the  one  is  pig-iron,  and  of  the  other  a  metal 
type-slug  or  "line  o'  type"  cast  from  a  row  of  matrices. 

On  the  other  hand,  something  more  than  the  most  elementary 


20  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

and  obvious  information  is  necessary  for  an  interesting  essay  on 
such  a  subject  as  "The  Importance  of  Pure  Drinking  Water;" 
for  every  one  knows  in  general  that  pure  drinking  water  is 
important,  that  impure  water  causes  disease.  In  this  case, 
because  a  few  broad  principles  about  drinlving  water  are  known 
to  everybody,  the  writer  must  have  specific  knowledge  as  to  the 
particular  diseases  most  often  caused  by  impure  water.  He 
must  know  not  only  the  usual  causes  of  contamination  but  also 
how  they  can  be  avoided.  He  must  know  somewhat  accurately 
the  sources  of  supply  of  a  good  water  system,  and  of  a  bad  water 
system  with  which  it  may  be  contrasted.  Thus  the  assumed 
knowledge  and  interests  of  the  reader  govern  the  choice  of 
material  and  the  method  of  explanation.  Any  newspaper  reader 
knows  that  some  of  the  articles  which  appear  in  print  on  "hints 
to  motorists,"  "planting  the  garden,"  and  similar  subjects  take 
too  little  for  granted,  and  others  far  too  much.  Some  are  so 
excessively  elementary  that  they  become  ridiculous;  others 
assume  knowledge  which  the  ordinary  reader  does  not  possess. 
Almost  any  booklet  of  directions  issued  by  manufacturers  for 
the  operation  of  a  machine  illustrates  both  these  opposite  errors: 
explaining  the  obvious,  and  passing  over  the  obscure  or  ambig- 
uous features  of  the  process.  To  avoid  both  these  faults, 
to  explain  clearly  without  "writing  down"  to  the  level  of  the 
reader,  is  one  of  our  principal  objects  in  planning  this  exposition. 
19.  What  have  I  to  say?  Having  chosen  a  subject  on  which 
he  has  some  special  knowledge,  and  having  decided  for  what 
kind  of  reader  he  will  undertake  to  ex-plain  it,  the  writer's  next 
task  is  to  collect  suitable  material.  This  material,  collected  in 
the  present  instance  wholly  from  his  own  mind,  he  will  then 
have  to  arrange  in  some  orderly  form  before  he  can  begin  the 
actual  writing  of  the  composition.  In  other  words,  he  must 
have  an  outline.  The  making  of  an  outline,  either  mental  or 
written,  is  indispensable  for  any  kind  of  wi'iting  or  speaking. 
For  the  autobiography  the  equivalent  of  an  outline  was  provided 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  21 

by  the  list  of  questions.  In  this  case  no  such  help  can  be  given, 
because  every  subject  needs  a  different  kind  of  outline,  depend- 
ing on  the  writer's  conception  of  it  and  of  the  needs  of  the 
reader. 

20.  Four  steps  in  outline-making:  mental  inventory,  divi- 
sion, arrangement,  development.  No  good  outline  can  be 
written  without  first  analyzing  the  subject  and  experimenting 
with  different  methods  of  treating  it.  The  process  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  four  steps : 

(i)  A  mental  inventory,  or  preliminary  list  of  the  contents 
of  the  mind  bearing  in  any  way  on  the  subject ;  a  large  number 
of  points  written  down  without  much  regard  for  order  or  relative 
importance,  solely  as  a  basis  for  selection; 

(2)  A  division  of  the  subject  into  three,  four,  or  five  main 
parts; 

(3)  An  arrangement  of  points  chosen  from  the  inventory 
on  the  basis  of  the  division; 

(4)  A  development  of  these  points  into  complete  sentences, 
by  adding  to  the  subjects  suitable  predicates. 

2L  The  mental  inventory.  Our  first  answer  to  the  question 
"What  have  I  to  say?"  is  likely  to  be  confused  and  incomplete. 
Hence  it  is  helpful,  especially  for  inexperienced  writers,  to  write 
down  rapidly  all  the  ideas  that  come  into  the  mind  when  the 
subject  is  considered.  The  arrangement  does  not  matter  much 
at  this  stage;  the  order,  if  one  writes  rapidly,  will  be  that  of 
more  or  less  accidental  association  of  ideas.  Let  us  take  a  sub- 
ject and  see  how  this  and  the  following  steps  in  outline-making 
work  out  in  practice.  Suppose  the  subject  is  "Learning  to  Use 
a  Typewriter."  On  a  large  sheet  of  scratch  paper,  with  a  soft, 
sharp  pencil,  we  begin  to  set  down  quickly  whatever  comes  into 
the  mind  bearing  in  any  way  on  the  subject.  When  the  supply 
of  ideas  seems  temporarily  to  be  near  exhaustion,  we  look  hard 
at  the  topic  last  written,  or  one  higher  up  on  the  page,  concen- 
trating on  it  until  some  new  point  emerges.     As  a  further 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


stimulus  to  thought  we  ask,  over  and  over  again,  these  six  ques- 
tions: 

Who? 

What? 

When? 

Where  ? 

How? 

Why? 
The  result  may  look  something  like  the  right-hand  column  of 
the   list   below  —  the   left-hand   column   being   the   mentally 
framed  questions  to  which  the  written  memoranda  are  the 
answers: 

Learning  to   Use  a  Typewriter 


Who  should  learn? 

What  would  they  use  it  for? 

Why  should  students  write  themes  on  a 

typewriter? 
Why  do  teachers  like  it? 
Why  should  students  learn  typewriting, 

apart  from  that  reason? 
WTiat  other  reason? 
How  can  a  student  learn  it? 
How  can  they  learn  without  joining  a 

class? 
How  else? 
When  can  they  practice,  with  all  the 

rest  of  the  things  thej'  have  to  do? 


What  machine  should  they  use? 

If  none  is  already  available,  what  then? 

Where  can  one  buy  a  second-hand  type- 
writer? 
Where  else? 


Students  —  t>'pewriting  useful  in 

college. 
Themes,  notes,  reports,  etc. 
Most  teachers  prefer  type-written 

work. 
Because  it  saves  their  time. 
Gives  good  practice  in  spelling  and 

punctuation. 
Can  earn  money  by  typewriting. 
Can  learn  without  instruction. 
Study  instruction  book  furnished 

by  manufacturers. 
By  practice. 
Can  practice  at  odd  times,  a  few 

minutes  a  day. 
Get  practice  in  copying  themes, 

etc. 
Any  machine,  if  already  available. 
Can  rent  for  $3  or  $4  a  month. 
Can  buy  a  second-hand  machine. 
Typewriter    agents    always    have 

used  machines  for  sale. 
Typewriter  exchanges  in  the  larger 

cities  specialize  in  used  machines. 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT 


23 


Where  else? 

When  is  it  safe  to  buy  at  second-hand? 

When  else? 

What  does  a  used  typewriter  cost? 

How  old  a  machine  is  it  safe  to  buy? 


What  modern  features? 

What  eke? 

When  is  it  better  to  buy  new? 

How  much  does  a  new  one  cost? 
What  models  besides  regular  models? 
What  else? 
What  kind  of  new  machines  can  be  had 

for  $50? 
Why      is      a     portable      typewriter 

desirable? 

When  is  portable  not  so  good? 

What  are  the  principal  kinds  of  type- 
writers? 
How  else  divided? 
What  kind  is  best? 

What  is  the  right  way  to  learn? 
What  is  the  touch  system? 


Why  should  one  learn  touch  system? 

Why  else? 

Who  uses  touch  system? 

Why  does  not  everybody  use  it? 

Why  else? 


Watch  the  "For  Sale"  advertise- 
ments. 

A  little  used  machine,  carefully 
handled  by  some  acquaintance. 

A  machine  rebuilt  at  the  factory. 

Costs  $20  to  ^50. 

Not  desirable  to  get  a  discontinued 
model  or  one  lacking  certain 
modem  features. 

Visible  writing. 

Universal  keyboard. 

Can  buy  new  typewriter  on  instal- 
ments. 

Regular  models  $50  to  $100. 

Wide  carriages  for  special  work. 

Special  type  for  technical  writing. 

Some  light  folding  portable  ma- 
chines. 

Portable  machines  handy  for  stu- 
dents, can  be  carried  to  and  from 
home. 

Portable  not  so  suitable  for  heavy 
office  work. 

Divided  into  type-bar  machines 
and  shuttle  machines. 

Double-shift  and  single-shift. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  merits. 

Either  kind  good  if  you  learn  right. 

Many  advocate  touch  system. 

Fixed  position  of  hands,  a  certain 
finger  always  used  for  a  given 
key,  practice  without  looking  at 
keyboard. 

Uses  all  the  fingers,  saves  time. 

Can  watch  copy  constantly. 

Many  professional  typists  use  it. 

Hard  to  learn  after  one  has  begun 
without  right  fingering. 

More  errors  likely  in  touch  system 
except  when  used  by  experts. 


24 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


What  is  right  fingering? 

Why  is  fingering  important? 
What  speed  is  expected? 

How  does  one  acquire  speed? 
What  sort  of  exercises? 

How  else  can  one  acquire  speed? 

WTiat   is    the   principal   hindrance    to 

speed? 
WTiy  should  fast  writing  waste  time? 

How  can  one  avoid  errors? 

What  is  the  first  step  in  learning  to  use  a 
typewriter? 

How  does  one  begin? 

What  is  there  to  learn  about  placing 

paper? 
What  else? 
How  wide  should  the  margins  be? 

WTiat  about  right-hand  margin? 

How  can  you  keep  right  margin  even? 

What  is  the  next  thing? 
What   should  be   the  space   between 
lines? 


WTien  should  line  be  ended? 

Wlicn  necessary  to  break  words  at  end 
of  line,  where  should  the  division 
come? 


Fingering  chart  given  in  instruc- 
tion book. 
Important  for  speed. 
Beginner  should  soon  write  forty 

or  fifty  words  a  minute. 
Exercises  for  speed. 
Alphabetic  sentences  using  all  the 

letters  of  the  alphabet. 
Memorized  passages  written  over 

and  over  against  time. 
Fast  writing  means  many  errors 

and  so  may  waste  time. 
Takes  as  much  time  to  erase  an 

error  neatly  as  to  write  a  line. 
Should  not  write  faster  than  one 

can  write  accurately. 
First    thing    to    learn    is    general 

mechanism  of  machine,  shifts, 

levers,  etc. 
Look  in  instruction  book  and  see 

how  to  insert  paper. 
Paper  should  be  placed  straight. 

^largins. 

Left-hand  margin  one  to  two 
inches. 

Right-hand  margin  as  even  as  pos- 
sible, and  at  least  an  inch  wide. 

Set  margin  stop  and  don't  run 
past  more  than  a  letter  or  two. 

Learn  to  use  line-spacer. 

Double  space  for  most  kinds  of 
writing;  single  space  often  used 
for  letters,  with  wide  margins, 
double  space  between  para- 
graphs. 

End  line  without  dividing  words 
when  possible. 

Words  never  divided  except  be- 
tween syllables, 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT 


25 


How  can  one  tell  what  the  syllables  are? 
Why  should  one  use  a  dictionary? 
Why  else  should  one  use  a  dictionary? 
Why  take  time  to  look  up  spelling? 


Use  dictionary  for  syllables. 

Can't  guess  at  syllables. 

Use  dictionary  for  spelling. 

Takes  more  time  to  correct  errors 
than  to  get  things  right  in  first 
place. 

Error  discovered  before  line  is 
finished  is  easily  erased  and  cor- 
rected. 

Must  use  scale  and  guides  in  order 
to  get  sheet  back  in  right  place 
to  correct  other  errors. 

Neatness  important. 

Keep  type  clean  —  not  clogged  up. 

Get  new  ribbon  when  old  is  worn 
faint. 

See  instruction  book  for  ribbon  re- 
placement. 

See  instruction  book  for  necessary 
cleaning  of  machine. 

Dust  is  ruinous  to  good  work. 

Regular  oiling  necessary. 

Neglect  means  repair  bill. 

Don't  meddle  with  mechanism  ex- 
cept to  tighten  loose  screws. 

Easy  to  do  more  harm  than  good. 

Typewriter  a  delicate  though 
strongly  built  machine,  will  give 
little  trouble  if  well  treated, 
easily  spoiled  by  neglect  and 
meddling. 

Such  a  medley  does  not  look  very  promising  at  first;  but  it 
is  far  more  promising  written  down  on  paper  than  floating  round 
loose  in  one's  mind.  The  topics,  though  set  down  at  random, 
follow  in  part  natural  associations  of  thought.  For  example, 
the  question  of  the  different  t3qDes  of  keyboards  leads  to  fingering, 
this  to  the  touch  system,  this  to  speed,  this  to  the  errors  that 
arise  from  excessive  speed.    Or  again,  the  use  of  the  line-spacer 


How  does  one  correct  errors? 

What  about  errors  discovered  later? 

Why  be  so  particular  about  errors? 
How  else  can  one  secure  neatness? 
How  else? 

How  is  a  new  ribbon  put  on? 

What  else  should  a  beginner  learn? 

Why  must  the  machine  be  cleaned? 

What  else? 

What  happens  if  cleaning  and  oiling  are 
neglected? 

Why  can't  one  make  repairs  for  one- 
self? 

Why  not? 

How  often  are  repairs  needed? 


26  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

to  turn  the  paper  up  at  the  end  of  a  line  leads  to  the  matter  of 
dividing  words  at  the  end  of  a  line,  this  to  syllable-division,  this 
to  the  dictionary.  But  the  mention  of  the  dictionary  suggests 
spelling,  which  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  matter  of  right-hand 
margins  on  a  typewritten  page,  and  evidently  belongs  some- 
where else.  There  is,  in  short,  a  sort  of  rough  coherence  in  some 
parts  of  the  inventory,  and  utter  incoherence  in  others. 

But  before  attempting  to  arrange  the  material,  or  even  to 
divide  it,  we  may  well  add  to  it  points  inadvertently  omitted, 
and  strike  out  those  which,  on  further  consideration,  we  decide 
not  to  include  in  the  discussion.  For  example,  on  turning  to  our 
six  leading  questions  we  find  that  the  question  "Where?"  has 
been  neglected;  only  a  few  points  have  answered  questions 
beginning  with  "Where?"  Accordingly  we  try  this  adverb  on 
the  main  subject.  "Where  should  one  learn  to  use  a  tyj^ewriter?" 
At  first  this  suggests  nothing  definite,  for  one  may  use  a  type- 
writer, or  learn  to  use  it,  almost  anywhere  if  there  is  something 
to  set  it  on.  But  where  shall  we  set  it?  The  ordinary  table  is 
too  high  for  comfortable  and  rapid  typewriting;  a  beginner  who 
starts  out  with  his  machine  placed  with  the  keyboard  much  above 
the  level  of  his  elbows  will  acquire  wrong  habits,  a  bad  touch. 
We  therefore  insert  somewhere  in  the  list  the  phrase  "Low 
table  best."  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  some  superfluous 
material.  The  memoranda  as  to  the  purchase  or  rental  of  a 
typewriter  may  be  regarded  as  not  strictly  pertinent  to  the  sub- 
ject as  now  worded,  "Learning  to  Use  a  Tyjoewriter. "  They 
might  become  pertinent  if  we  should  later  decide  to  modify  the 
title,  for  example,  "Why  Students  Should  Use  Typewriters." 
Leaving  that  question  open,  the  jioints  may  be  bracketed  or 
queried  (not  erased)  for  the  present.  There  remains,  after  such 
additions  and  subtractions,  an  abundance  of  material  for  an 
interesting  exposition,  but  it  is  in  much  confusion.  We  need  a 
division. 

22.     The  division.     After  such   a   hasty  surv^ey  as  is  repre- 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  27 

sented  in  the  mental  inventory,  the  second  step  is  to  consider 
several  possible  divisions  into  three  or  four  main  groups.  Seldom 
will  the  best  division  appear  at  first;  comparison  and  criticism 
will  usually  be  necessary  to  avoid  the  obvious,  the  tame,  the 
uninteresting  treatment.  We  take  a  fresh  sheet  of  paper,  and 
write  on  it  in  several  places  from  top  to  bottom  a  brace  followed 
by  three  or  four  roman  numerals,  like  this: 


We  then  undertake  to  fill  in  the  blanks  after  the  numerals  in 
several  different  ways.    Let  us  consider  some  possibiUties. 

il.     Value  of  typewriting  to  students 
II.     First  steps  in  learning  typewriting 
III.     Later  steps 

This  is  commonplace.     We  try  again: 

!I.     Typewriting  now  almost  a  necessity 
II.     Any  one  can  learn  by  starting  right 
III.     Speed  requires  practice 

This  is  better,  but  there  are  other  possibilities: 

I.  Master  mechanical  features  at  start 

II .  Work  solely  for  accuracy  and  neatness  at  first 

III.  Speed  comes  later 

IV.  Value  of  typewriting 

fl.     Why  should  one  learn  typewriting? 
II.     When  should  one  learn? 
III.     How  should  one  learn? 

il.     Typewriting  takes  care 
II.     Takes  time 
HI.     Pays  In  the  end 

From  such  experiments  as  these  we  decide,  perhaps,  on  some  such 
division  as  that  roughly  indicated  in  the  following  memorandum : 


28  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

I.  The  value  of  typewriting  for  students,  as  justifying  its  cost 
in  time  and  money.  (This  last  feature  answers  the  query 
in  the  inventory  about  the  cost  of  new  and  second-hand 
typewriters.) 

II.     The  importance  of   beginning   right,   and   what   the   right 
beginning  is. 
III.    The  means  of  acquiring  proficiency. 

These  phrases  do  not  constitute  an  outline;  they  merely  indicate 
a  division  upon  the  basis  of  which  a  complete  outline  can  be 
made  by  arrangement  and  development  of  the  details. 

23.  The  arrangement.  Points  from  the  inventory  are  now 
to  be  grouped  under  these  three  heads.  In  the  case  of  a  much 
mLxed-up  inventory  the  simplest  way  may  be  to  number  each 
point  in  the  inventory  I,  II,  or  III,  according  to  its  proper  place 
in  the  division.  Thus  the  first  few  points  in  the  inventory 
evidently  belong  under  I,  having  to  do  chiefly  with  the  \-alue  of 
a  knowledge  of  typewriting  and  with  its  cost  in  time  and  in 
money.  Some  of  the  material  about  portable  and  non-portable 
machines  has  little  to  do  with  the  subject  as  now  defined,  and 
we  pass  over  it  to  the  points  about  fingering  and  the  touch 
system.  These  points  are  numbered  11.  Then  comes  a  passage 
about  acquiring  speed,  which  belongs  under  III,  followed  by  a 
good  deal  of  other  matter  about  margins  and  line-spacing  that 
belongs  to  II.  Thus  we  go  through  the  inventory  classifying 
the  points  under  these  three  heads.  It  soon  becomes  evident 
that  the  subdivisions  under  I  and  III  will  be  few  and  simple, 
while  the  arrangement  of  points  under  II  will  require  some 
further  attention.  We  may  save  some  time  in  the  writing  of  the 
outline  if  we  go  over  the  inventory  once  more  noting  only  the 
points  numbered  II,  and  decide  on  some  logical  arrangement  of 
them  which  may  be  indicated  by  writing  A,  E,  C,  etc.  after  the 
II.  We  are  then  ready  for  the  final  and  perhaps  most  important 
step  of  developing  from  the  inventory  and  the  division  a  com- 
plete sentence  outline. 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  29 

24.  The  development.  A  mere  arrangement  in  suitable 
order  of  the  points  to  be  discussed  (a  phrase  outHne)  is  not  ade- 
quate for  such  practice  in  exposition  as  is  here  undertaken. 
OutUnes  written  in  single  words  and  detached  phrases  indicate 
the  order  of  discussion,  but  nothing  more.  The  writer  has  still 
to  decide  what  he  has  to  say  about  each  point.  It  is  true  that 
for  some  purposes  the  phrase  outline  is  sufficient,  especially  in 
descriptive  and  narrative  writing.  In  most  expository  and 
argumentative  outlines,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  best  to  supply 
a  predicate  for  every  subject.  For  example,  when  we  come  to 
the  subject  of  keyboards,  what  are  we  to  say  about  them?  We 
may  say,  "Nearly  all  modern  typewriters  have  about  the  same 
arrangement  of  letters;"  or  "Most  keyboards  are  of  one  or  the 
other  of  two  types,  the  double  shift  and  the  single  shift;"  or 
"The  arrangement  of  letters  on  the  standard  keyboard  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  best  for  rapid  work;"  or  we  may  supply  some 
altogether  different  predicate.  In  a  sentence  outline  for  a  long 
exposition  these  sentences  as  a  rule  become  the  topic  sentences 
of  paragraphs;  in  a  short  composition  they  may  make  up  haK 
or  more  than  half  of  the  completed  text.  In  either  case  the 
formulation  of  a  definite  predicate  for  every  subject  in  the  out- 
line is  the  only  way  to  give  a  real  answer  to  the  question,  "What 
have  I  to  say  about  it?" 

The  completed  outline  will  look  somewhat  like  this: 

Typewriting    for    College   Students 

I.     A  knowledge  of  typewriting  is  so  useful  to  students  that  is  is  worth 
some  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 
A.     The  use  of  a  typewriter  is  helpful  to  the  student  in  three  ways: 

1.  In  enabling  him  to  turn  in  neater  themes,  notes,  reports,  etc., 
thereby  escaping  the  unfavorable  impression  created  by 
illegible  manuscript. 

2.  In  training  him  in  accurate  spelling  and  punctuation. 

3.  Ultimately,  after  sufficient  proficiency  has  been  attained,  in 

a.  Saving  his  time. 

b.  Earning  money  by  copying  for  others. 


30  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

B.  The  time  necessary  for  learning  to  write,  accurately  but  slowly, 

is  only  a  few  weeks. 

C.  The  cost,  if  one  must  buy  a  typewriter,  is  not  great;  for 

1.  A  new  machine  ($50  to  $100)  may  be  paid  for  in  instalments, 

and  represents  an  investment  good  for  many  years. 

2.  A  good  second-hand  machine  ($20  to  $50)  will  give  fair  ser- 

vice for  at  least  four  years. 

n.     In  learning  the  typewriter  the  first  steps  must  be  taken  with  care  and 
patience. 

A .  Any  one  can  learn  in  a  few  minutes  to  pick  out  the  letters  and  write 
in  hit-or-miss  fashion,  using  one  or  two  fingers;  but  neither  accu- 
racy nor  speed  can  be  acquired  in  that  way. 

B.  The  first  step  is  to  learn,  preferably  from  an  instruction  book,  the 
elementary  mechanism  of  the  typewriter;  e.g.: 

1.  How  to  insert  and  straighten  the  paper. 

2.  How  to  set  the  left  and  right  margin  stops. 

a.  Margins  should  be  approximately  equal,  and  never 
less  than  an  inch. 

b.  Good  tj'pewriting  has  a  fairly  even  right-hand 
margin,  requiring  care  in  looking  ahead  when 
approaching  the  end  of  a  line. 

c.  Margin-release  devices  should  not  be  indiscrimi- 
nately used  to  permit  writing  beyond  the  normal 
margin. 

3.  How  to  set  the  line-spacer  for  single  or  double  space. 

a.  Single  space  is  often  used  for  letters,  with  wide 
margins,  and  double  space  between  paragraphs. 

b.  Double  space  is  best  for  most  other  purposes. 

4.  How  to  use  the  shift-keys  for  capitals  and  figures. 

5.  How    to    write    the    alphabet    in    small    letters    and 
capitals. 

6.  How   to   use  such    mechanical    devices   as   the    back- 
spacer,  ribbon-reverse,  etc. 

C.  Correct  fingering,  as  described  in  the  instruction  book,  should 
be  used  from  the  first;  for 

1.  It  is  based  on  using  ten  fingers,  instead  of  four  or  six, 
and  in  the  long  run  it  is  easiest  and  fastest. 

2.  The  third  and  fourth  fingers,  weak  at  first,  wUl  gain 
strength  with  practice. 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  31 

3.     Whether  the  touch  system  is  used  or  not,  one  should  be 
able  to  run  a  t)^ewriter  without  constantly  watching  the 
keyboard. 
III.     After, one  has  learned  the  elements  of  typewriting  it  is  important  to 
continue  to  strive  for 

A.  Accuracy. 

1.  Errors  due  to  inadvertence  look  just  as  bad  as  those  due  to 
ignorance. 

2.  Every  error  should  be  carefully  erased  and  corrected. 

B.  Speed. 

1.  Fingering  exercises  should  be  persistently  practiced  until  the 
position  of  the  letters  is  completely  mastered. 

2.  Memorized  sentences  should  be  repeated  over  and  over  at 
increasing  speed. 

3.  Timing  oneself  page  by  page  gives  a  good  stimulus. 

4.  Speed  should  not  be  allowed  to  obscure  the  superior  import- 
ance of  accuracy;  for 

a.  No  time  is  really  gained  by  fast,  reckless  writing. 

b.  In  typewriting,  as  in  all  other  writing,  the  convenience 
of  the  reader  rather  than  of  the  writer  should  be 
consulted. 

25.  The  form  of  the  outline.  Note  the  form  in  which  the 
outline  is  written  on  the  page.  Its  main  divisions  are  written 
the  fu  11  width  of  the  page,  and  numbered  I,  II,  III.  The  princi- 
pal subdivisions  are  indented  and  lettered  A,  B,  C.  These  in 
turn  are  subdivided  into  numbered  sections,  i,  2, 3,  still  more  in- 
dented; and  the  process,  if  necessary,  is  carried  one  step  further, 
to  the  a,  I),  c.  Divisions  of  the  same  order  of  importance  should 
be  equally  indented.  If  a  division  runs  over  a  line,  the  second 
line  should  begin  no  further  to  the  left  than  the  first;  in  other 
words,  only  the  main  divisions  with  roman  numerals  are  written 
the  full  width  of  the  page;  everything  else  is  indented.  The 
reason  for  requiring  a  uniform  method  of  numbering  and  spacing 
is  that  the  relative  importance  of  a  point  may  be  instantly  seen 
by  its  notation  and  its  distance  from  the  margin  —  this  for  the 
guidance  both  of  the  writer  and  of  the  reader. 


32  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

26.  The  outline  promotes  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 
Such  an  outline  insures  a  reasonable  degree  of  unity  in  the  whole 
composition  and  in  each  of  its  paragraphs,  because  in  making  it 
we  are  forced  to  exclude  or  transpose  irrelevant  material.  For 
example,  we  found  no  place  in  which  to  discuss  the  question  what 
sort  of  typewriter  one  should  buy,  whether  portable  or  non- 
portable, double-shift  or  single-shift,  new  or  second-hand, 
because  the  only  angle  from  which  this  matter  proved  to  be 
pertinent  was  the  amount  of  money  to  be  expended.  Another 
composition  might  be  written  on  "How  to  Choose  a  Typewriter," 
but  that  subject,  although  suggested  in  the  mental  inventory,  is 
barred  from  the  outline  by  its  structure  and  by  limitations  of 
length.  Again,  the  sentence  outline  promotes  coherence. 
Under  the  head  of  correct  fingering  (H.  C)  we  might  hsLxe  gone 
on  to  say  all  we  had  to  say  about  fingering  exercises,  if  it  were 
not  that  our  third  division  (HI.  B)  needed  that  point  to  make 
it  complete. 

Emphasis,  too,  is  promoted  by  a  good  outline.  Either  the 
first  or  the  second  main  division  may  be  made  the  more  emphatic 
by  receiving  the  major  assignment  of  space  in  the  finished  com- 
position, according  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended. 
Moreover,  the  outline,  which  itself  includes  a  little  more  than 
five  hundred  words,  shows  us  that  we  have  quite  enough  mater- 
ial —  perhaps  too  much  —  for  a  short  theme,  without  consider- 
ing at  all  such  matters  mentioned  in  the  inventory  as  the  care  of 
the  typewriter,  cleaning,  and  repairs.  Emphasis,  in  a  short 
theme,  will  require  the  omission  or  mere  passing  mention  of  some 
things  otherwise  pertinent,  in  order  to  bring  out  the  dominant 
ideas.  The  outline  also  promotes  emphasis  of  another  kind 
than  that  of  proportionate  space,  namely,  emphasis  of  position. 
A  consideration  of  this  principle  leads  us  to  begin  (LA)  and  to 
end  (HI.B.  4.I))  with  important  points  particularly  appropriate 
for  an  English  theme,  and  to  give  them  initial  and  terminal 
emphasis  without  destroying  their  relation  to  the  intervening 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE   SUBJECT  33 

material.  Thus  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis,  which  are 
fundamental  principles  of  all  composition,  are  both  promoted 
and  tested  by  such  a  thorough  preliminary  analysis  as  is  repre- 
sented in  a  full  sentence  outline.  A  phrase  outline  would  have 
indicated  little  besides  the  arrangement,  and  would  have  misled 
us  into  including  far  more  material  than  could  be  adequately 
treated. 

27.  Paragraphing.  In  the  case  of  a  short  composition  the 
paragraphs  are  likely  to  coincide  with  the  main  divisions  of  the 
outline.  An  ordinary  paragraph  in  modern  English  exposition 
varies  from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  words,  averaging 
perhaps  two  hundred.  Two  hundred  words  are  equivalent  in 
ordinary  handwriting  to  about  a  page,  or  a  page  and  a  quarter, 
of  theme-paper;  in  ordinary  speech  two  hundred  words  occupy 
about  a  minute  and  a  half.  Therefore  a  theme  of  six  to  eight 
hundred  words,  or  an  oral  exposition  of  five  or  six  minutes,  will 
ordinarily  have  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than  five  para- 
graphs; and  a  good  paragraph  in  such  a  theme  will  cover  not 
much  less  and  not  much  more  than  a  page  of  ordinary  handwriting. 
These  rough  estimates  are  stated  solely  as  a  caution  against  the 
common  fault  of  writing  short,  fragmentary  paragraphs  of  two 
or  three  sentences  each;  but  it  is  not  length  nor  brevity  that 
determines  merit  in  paragraphs;  it  is  unity. 

A  paragraph,  in  exposition  or  argument,  is  a  coherent  group 
of  sentences  dealing  with  one  distinct  aspect  of  the  subject,  and 
slightly  separated  in  thought  from  those  paragraphs  which  pre- 
cede and  follow.  This  separation  in  thought  is  indicated  in 
writing  and  printing  by  indention;  in  speech  by  a  slight  pause 
and  a  change  of  tone.  A  careful  speaker  will  unconsciously 
mark  his  paragraphs  just  as  unmistakably  as  a  writer.  We  must 
get  away  from  the  idea  of  a  paragraph  as  a  part  of  a  composition 
arbitrarily  set  off  by  the  use  of  a  little  extra  white  space  to  rest 
the  eye.  We  must  learn  to  think  of  the  paragraph  as  an  organic 
unity  developed  from  within,  built  up  around  a  central  idea. 


34  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

This  unity  of  the  paragraph  may  be  attained  in  a  short  theme 
by  having  the  paragraphs  coincide  with  the  main  divisions,  but 
such  a  coincidence  is  by  no  means  indispensable.  Many  persons 
writing  from  the  outHne  above  printed  would  devote  the  whole 
of  the  first  paragraph  to  LA  (value  of  a  knowledge  of  typewrit- 
ing) ;  a  second  to  LB  and  I.C.  (cost  in  time  and  money) ;  a  third 
to  II.A  and  II. B.  (first  steps  in  learning);  a  fourth  to  II. C  (fin- 
gering) ;  and  a  fifth  to  III  (practice  for  accuracy  and  speed).  In 
a  slightly  longer  composition  there  would  be  seven  or  eight  para- 
graphs instead  of  five:  two  or  three  paragraphs  being  devoted  to 
the  first  steps  in  learning  (II.A,  B),  and  two  to  the  last  division. 
A  considerably  longer  discussion,  such  as  a  printed  leaflet  or 
pamphlet  for  advertising  purposes,  would  give  a  separate  para- 
graph to  nearly  every  subdivision  in  the  outline.  The  number 
of  paragraphs,  in  other  words,  depends  upon  the  degree  of  ful- 
ness with  which  the  subject  is  developed. 

28.  Condensed  outlines  for  oral  exposition.  After  a  fully 
developed  sentence  outline  has  been  written,  the  student  is  pre- 
pared either  to  write  or  to  speak  on  the  subject.  Most  of  the 
real  work  —  the  analysis  and  arrangement  of  the  material  —  has 
been  already  done.  Whether  speaking  comes  before  or  after 
writing  in  full,  it  should  be  based  on  mastery  of  the  material 
rather  than  on  memorization  of  the  exact  language  to  be  used. 
The  leading  points  should  be  so  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  that 
little  or  no  use  need  be  made  of  notes.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  best  way  to  make  sure  of  not  needing  to  use  notes  is  to 
make  the  best  notes  possible  in  the  briefest  and  most  convenient 
compass,  to  study  them  carefully,  and  then  to  have  them  at 
hand  ready  to  consult  in  an  emergency.  The  best  form  for 
notes  for  a  short  talk  is  on  small  cards  of  uniform  size,  which  can 
be  slipped  into  the  pocket,  or,  if  necessary,  held  in  the  hollow 
of  the  left  hand  while  speaking.  Sheets  of  paper  are  unsuitable, 
because  if  large  they  require  both  hands  to  hold  them  steady, 
and  if  small  they  are  likely  to  curl  or  crumple  up  and  become 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT 


35 


illegible.  The  lines  of  writing  on  the  card  should  be  across  its 
shorter  dimension  in  order  that  it  may  be  held  in  the  left  palm, 
instead  of  between  thumb  and  forefinger.  Suppose  we  take  the 
outline  on  typewriting  and  see  what  kind  of  condensed  memo- 
randum can  be  got  on  the  two  sides  of  a  single  card  three  by 
five  inches.  A  carefully  framed  introductory  sentence  or  two, 
followed  by  an  abbreviated  summary  of  the  outline,  will  appear 
somewhat  as  follows : 


Many  of  us  who  are  earning  our 
way  in  college  are  apt  to  think 
we  cannot  afford  to  own  a 
typewriter.  The  real  ques- 
tion is:  Can  we  afford  to  do 
without  it?  A  good  workman 
must  sooner  or  later  afford  the 
best  tools  of  his  trade. 


I.   A. 


The  Value  of  a  Type- 
writer 

Neater  written  work 

Training  in  spelling,  etc. 

Saving  time. 

Earning  money 

Exceeds  the  cost 

In  time — only  few  weeks 

In  money  —  new  ma- 
chine $50-1100,  in- 
stalments; used  ma- 
chines, $20-$50. 


II.  First  Steps  in  Learning 

A.  Important  to  start  right 

B.  Mechanical  features: 

Inserting  paper 
Margins 

Single  and  double  space 
Shift-keys 
Learning  alphabet 
Minor  mechanical  fea- 
tures 

C.  Correct  fingering — why? 


B. 


III.     After  learning  elements, 
Work  for  Accuracy  and  Speed 

A.     Errors    mar    work    and 
should  be  corrected. 

Speed: 

Fingering  exercises 

Memorized  sentences 

Timing  pages 
Speed    less    important 

than  accuracy 


For,  after  all,  we  gain  nothing 

if  we  learn  to  write  fast  with- 
out learning  to  write  well. 
The  convenience  of  the  writer 
must  always  give  way  to  the 
convenience  of  the  reader, 
whom  he  desires  to  win  and 
to  hold  fast  from  the  first 
page  down  to  the  very  last 
line.  Clean  copy  commands 
respect,  holds  attention,  and, 
if  there  be  anything  in  it  worth 
reading,  insures  success. 


36 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


If  more  than  one  card  is  necessary,  only  one  side  should  be 
written  on,  and  the  cards  should  be  numbered.  A  different 
method  of  condensation,  in  which  the  extreme  compactness  of 
a  single  card  is  sacrificed  to  better  display  of  the  material  to 
catch  the  eye,  is  illustrated  in  the  following  outline  of  the  sub- 
ject "Guarding  against  Residence  Fires."  This  outline  is 
written  on  six  small  cards,  two  and  one-half  by  three  inches 
(three-by-five  cards  cut  in  two),  which  are  still  more  easily  held 
in  the  palm  of  the  left  hand. 


When  the  fire-engines 
dash  past  your  door, 
and  the  tiremen  begin 
to  lay  hose  from  a 
hydrant  on  the  next 
corner,  the  thought 
flashes  into  your  mind, 
what  if  it  were  our 
house?  It  may  be  your 
house  next.  What  arc 
we  doing  to  prevent 
residence  fires?  What 
more  can  we  do? 
I.  Origin  of  res.  fires. 
11.  Conditions  of  spread. 

III.  Means      of      exting- 

uishing. 

IV.  Means  of  escape. 


III.  Means  of  checking 
small  fires  at  start : 

Chemical  extinguish- 
ers. 

Smothering  by  wet 
blankets  or  rugs 

Tearing  down  blaz- 
ing draperies 

Cutting  off  draft 

Best  usually  to  send 
in  alarm  if  blaze 
not  instant). \- 
checked 


Commonest  causes   of 
residence  fires  are: 
Matches 
Gasoline 
Gas-burners 
Overheated    fur- 
naces 
Defective  wiring 


Remedies  for  these: 


IV.  Proviiling  for  escape 

of  tenants: 
Suitable  stairways 
Fire-escapes    above 

second  floor 
Knowledge  of  proper 

way         to         pass 

through   smoke 


Rapid  spread  of  small 
fires  due  to: 

Paper  and  inflamma- 
ble rubbisli 

Inflammable  tlraper- 
ies. 

Opening  of  doors  and 
windows  which 

creates  a  draft. 


Remedies  for  these: 


We  Americans  are  more 
reckless  about  fire  than 
any  other  people  i  n  the 
world.  Carelessness 

that  risks  not  only  one's 
own  property  but  the 
property  and  the  lives 
of  others  deserves  only 
condemnation.  Every 
good  citizen  should  be 
a  volunteer  fireman  to 
the  extent  of  relentless 
vigilance  against  the 
start  and  the  spread  of 
residence  fires. 

Safety  begins  at  home. 


Observe  that  these  condensed  notes  are  so  arranged  as  to  be 
instantly  available  in  case  of  a  failure  of  memory;  but  it  is  not 
contemplated  that  a  speaker  should  be  looking  down  at  the  card 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  37 

for  every  point.  If  notes  of  this  sort  have  been  carefully  worked 
out  by  the  person  who  is  to  use  them,  and  if  the  catch-words  at 
the  beginning  and  at  the  end  have  been  memorized,  the  rest  is 
likely  to  take  care  of  itself.  Much  importance  may  be  attached 
to  the  memorizing  of  the  exact  phraseology  intended  to  be  used 
at  the  very  beginning  and  the  very  end  of  the  speech.  These 
two  sentences,  and  the  catchwords  of  the  main  divisions  (e.g. 
causes,  spread,  checking,  escape)  are  all  that  need  to  be  learned; 
provided  the  material  has  been  thoroughly  prepared  and  re- 
hearsed, subdivisions  and  details  will  be  easily  recollected,  at 
least  enough  of  them  to  make  a  good  speech.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
be  dependent  either  upon  memorized  details  or  upon  elaborate 
notes;  in  the  one  case  the  speaker's  eyes  are  fLxed  on  the  ceiling, 
in  the  other  on  his  manuscript;  and  a  speaker's  eyes  should 
always  be  on  his  audience. 

29.  Suggestions  for  oral  exposition.  Whether  delivered  with 
or  without  notes,  an  oral  exposition  should  be  a  genuine  talk  to 
the  class,  not  a  perfunctory  enumeration  of  points.  The 
speaker's  first  business  as  he  faces  his  audience  is  to  win  atten- 
tion, to  excite  interest.  This  requires  no  formal  introduction, 
but  a  crisp  sentence  or  two  pointing  out  some  point  of  contact, 
some  element  of  timeliness,  some  practical  bearing  of  the 
subject. 

Then  should  come  some  indication,  informal  but  clear,  of  the 
threefold  or  fourfold  division  adopted.  This  sentence  announc- 
ing the  division  is  often  forgotten  by  inexperienced  speakers,  or 
if  remembered  is  stiffly  and  awkwardly  delivered.  It  may  take 
many  forms.  On  the  subject  of  typewriting,  for  example,  one 
might  say,  after  the  introductory  sentences  at  the  head  of  the 
condensed  outline:  "It  is  easy  to  show  that  the  value  of  type- 
writing to  a  college  student  exceeds  its  cost;  and  that  if  the  first 
steps  in  learning  the  art  are  properly  mastered,  one  may  by 
reasonable  practice  attain  accuracy  and  speed.  First,  then,  why 
is  a  knowledge  of  typewriting  valuable?"    On  the  other  subject 

46623 


38  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  division  might  be  announced  in  some  such  way  as  this: 
"What  are  we  doing  to  prevent  residence  fires?  What  more 
can  we  do?  In  order  to  answer  these  questions  we  must  con- 
sider what  causes  residence  fires,  why  they  spread  so  fast,  how 
they  may  be  checked  at  the  start,  and  how  the  escape  of  tenants 
may  be  provided  for  in  case  a  fire  gets  beyond  control." 

In  treating  each  point  in  turn,  careful  attention  should  be 
gi\'en  to  the  lapse  of  time,  in  order  that  the  end  of  the  allotted 
period  may  not  arrive  when  the  speaker  is  hah  through.  A 
watch  or  clock  is  less  convenient  for  this  than  a  timing  device, 
started  and  stopped  by  a  lever,  such  as  is  manufactured  for 
timing  long-distance  telephone  conversations;  or  even  a  sand- 
glass, turned  over  when  the  speaker  begins.  But  in  case  no 
such  convenience  is  provided  in  the  classroom,  the  speaker 
should  still  be  able,  if  properly  prepared  by  a  timed  rehearsal, 
to  keep  within  the  prescribed  limit. 

In  the  effective  use  of  the  last  minute  lies  much  of  the  differ- 
ence between  a  good  speech  and  a  poor  one.  Whatever  else  is 
left  to  the  inspiration  of  the  moment,  the  exact  substance,  per- 
haps even  the  form  of  the  concluding  sentence  should  be  firmly 
fixed  in  mind.  A  race  is  won  at  the  tape;  and  a  good  finish  is 
as  important  as  a  good  start.  Even  when  through  miscalcula- 
tion one  finds  it  necessary  to  omit  some  imj^ortant  material,  the 
best  course  is  not  to  hurry  incoherently  through  half -explained 
points  to  a  weak  and  apologetic  ending,  but  to  pass  boldly  and 
without  delay  to  a  conclusion.  A  sentence  framed  in  advance 
for  just  such  an  emergency  is  worth  a  good  deal  at  that  particular 
time;  for  it  seems  to  bridge  over  the  gap  (which  probably  no  one 
but  the  speaker  has  noticed)  and  ends  the  speech  with  a  note  of 
confidence,  of  assurance,  of  force. 

30.  Natural  gesture.  At  any  moment  in  an  oral  exposition 
when  one  feels  the  impulse  to  point  to  some  visible  object  in 
the  room,  or  to  use  the  hands  to  indicate  size,  shape,  motion, 
direction,  the  impulse  should  be  followed.    Thus  in  a  talk  on 


EXPLAINING  A  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  39 

lighting  or  ventilation  one  may  well  point  to  parts  of  the  class- 
room. A  speaker  explaining  the  elements  of  sailing  will  use  the 
two  hands  to  indicate  the  relative  angles  of  the  wind  and  the 
sail,  or  the  sail  and  the  rudder.  A  mechanical  process  or  device 
suggests  many  illustrative  natural  hand-gestures.  The  value  of 
such  movements  is  less  for  the  audience  than  for  the  speaker. 
Their  real  function  is  the  Hberation  of  the  hands  and  arms  from 
the  tyranny  of  pockets  and  self-consciousness.  A  test  will  show 
that  the  moment  the  hands  come  into  use  in  simple,  natural  ways 
growing  out  of  the  subject,  the  mind  works  more  freely,  words 
come  more  easily,  command  over  the  audience  and  the  subject 
is  increased.  Gestures  of  this  natural  sort,  to  indicate  direc- 
tion, form,  movement,  and  so  forth,  need  no  elaborate  study  or 
preparation ;  one  has  merely  to  let  oneself  go. 

It  is  true  that  many  subjects  present  no  such  opportunities. 
For  these  the  other  kind  of  gesture,  the  symbolic  kind  apphca- 
ble  to  all  kinds  of  abstract  thought  and  oratory,  may  be  too 
diiScult  for  the  beginner,  or  even  inappropriate  to  a  simple  sub- 
ject. But  any  chance  to  use  the  former  kind,  even  if  only  to 
pick  up  a  piece  of  chalk  and  write  on  the  blackboard  an  unusual 
word,  or  sketch  rapidly  a  rude  diagram,  should  be  all  means  be 
seized  upon.  The  lifting  of  the  self-imposed  ban  against  move- 
ment while  one  stands  on  the  platform,  the  release  of  restrained 
energy  from  the  tense  muscles  to  the  busy  brain  by  almost  any 
instinctive  gesture,  is  the  first  object  to  be  attained.  After  that, 
by  suflEicient  experience,  one  may  learn  the  difBcult  art  of  stand- 
ing at  ease  without  gesture,  without  tension,  without  slackness; 
standing  still,  with  the  consciousness  of  latent  power,  which  is 
the  achievement  of  the  practiced  speaker. 

3L  Criticism  of  oral  expositions.  In  order  that  students 
may  learn  to  speak  in  public  by  one  of  the  best  possible  means, 
namely,  by  observing  both  the  merits  and  the  faults  of  their 
classmates  with  direct  apphcation  to  their  own,  such  questions 
as  the  following  may  be  placed  before  the  class  for  answer: 


40  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

The  Speech  in  General 

1.  Did  the  speaker  properly  announce  his  subject? 

2.  Did  he  stick  to  it  and  complete  it?  (Unity.) 

3.  Were  the  several  points  clearly  announced,  properly  arranged,  and  well 

connected?     (Coherence) 

4.  Was  there  a  proper  distribution  of  time?     (Emphasis) 

5.  Was  there  any  obscure  passage?     (Clearness) 

6.  Was  the  opening  sentence  such  as  to  attract  attention?     (Interest) 

7.  Were  specific  examples  used  to  illustrate  the  points?     (Interest) 

8.  Did  the  speaker,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  bold  the  attention  of  his  audience? 

(Interest) 

9.  Did  he  close  with  an  effecti\e  sentence?     (Interest) 

10.  Was  the  speech  forcible?     If  not,  why?     (Force) 
Errors 

11.  Was  the  speaker's  bodily  attitude  correct? 

12.  Was  the  voice  clear,  distinct,  pleasant,  loud  enough  to  be  easily  heard? 

13.  What  words  were  mispronounced? 

14.  What   words   were   slurred,   clijiped,   drawled,   or  otherwise   wrongly 

sounded,  apart  from  the  definite  errors  in  accent  or  vowel  quantity 
above  named? 

15.  What  words  were  used  in  an  incorrect  sense? 

16.  What  errors  in  grammar? 

17.  What  errors  of  fact,  or  self-contradictory  statements? 

In  connection  with  questions  13  and  14,  attention  may  be  called 
to  the  list  of  words  commonly  mispronounced,  in  the  ap[)endix 
of  tliis  book. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  2.  Read  sections  16-26,  select  a  subject  from  the  list  of  one 
hundred,  and  write  out  a  "mental  inventory"  (section  21)  of  at  least  twenty- 
five  points  bearing  on  the  subject.  This  inventory  need  not  be  copied,  but 
should  be  brought  to  class  for  possible  use  in  the  class  discussion. 

Assignment  3.  Reread  sections  24  and  25.  Write  a  completely  developed 
sentence  outhne  in  the  form  there  illustrated.  Revise  and  copy  the  outline 
to  be  handed  in,  retaining  the  original  draft  for  reference. 

Assignment  4.  Read  sections  27-31,  write  on  a  small  card  or  cards  a  con- 
densed outline  hke  those  in  section  28,  and  prepare  by  private  oral  rehearsal 
for  a  five-minute  talk  in  class. 

Assignment  5.  Write  a  theme  of  six  to  eight  hundred  words  on  the  subject 
already  outlined. 


CHAPTER  III 

GOOD    SENTENCES 

32.  Good  sentences  are  not  accidental  but  deliberate. 
After  two  carefully  planned  exercises  in  simple  exposition  (Chap- 
ters I  and  II),  we  have  already  come  to  see  that  careful  planning 
is  indispensable.  No  good  essay  arises  from  good  luck.  Chance 
may  favor  a  writer  here  and  there,  but  chance  cannot  be  trusted. 
Writers  may  blunder  their  way  into  popularity,  but  not  into 
efficiency.  Where  there  is  one  who  succeeds  without  work, 
there  are  many  who  work  without  success;  usually  because  they 
do  not  work  intelligently.  This  need  of  well  directed  labor  in 
learning  how  to  write  appUes  to  the  planning  of  the  whole  com- 
position; to  the  sentences;  to  the  paragraphs;  and  to  the  individ- 
ual words.  This  chapter  is  devoted  to  good  sentences.  In  a 
later  chapter  good  paragraphs  will  be  studied;  and  still  later 
there  will  be  a  more  intensive  study  of  words.  Whether 
sentences  or  paragraphs  should  come  first  in  college  composition 
is  a  matter  of  opinion;  but  inasmuch  as  study  of  the  syntax  of 
the  sentence  is  partly  a  review  of  the  elementary  English  already 
studied,  it  may  properly  come  near  the  beginning  of  the  year's 
work.  Grammar  is  a  subject  none  too  well  taught  and  none  too 
well  understood  at  the  present  time.  To  ask  a  college  freshman 
to  go  back  to  the  rudiments  of  sentence  structure  is  no  reflection 
upon  his  intelligence;  for  many  intelligent  people  do  not  know 
one  type  of  sentence  from  another.  So  long  as  one  is  content 
with  the  ability  to  express  a  thought  in  one  passably  correct 
fashion,  the  necessity  for  such  grammatical  knowledge  does 
not  immediately  appear.  It  is  when  we  begin  to  seek  variety 
and  flexibility  of  expression  that  we  perceive  our  lack;  and,  if 

41 


42  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

we  are  wise,  take  measures  to  remedy  the  defect.     The  first 
step  is  to  learn  to  recognize  a  sentence  when  we  see  it. 

33.  Sentences  and  clauses  distinguished.  Sentences  and 
clauses  are  alike  in  that  both  require  subjects  and  predicates. 
They  differ  in  that  a  sentence  —  a  declarative  sentence  —  is  a 
complete  assertion,  and  a  clause  is  an  incomplete  assertion.  It 
is  clear  enough  that  a  dependent  clause  in  a  complex  sentence  is 
an  incomplete  assertion,  for  its  meaning  is  determined  by  the 
principal  clause. 

He  makes  mistakes  when  he  tries  to  write  fast, 

(principal  clause)  (dependent  clause) 

Though  wages  have  decreased,       rents  remain  high. 
(dependent  clause)  (principal  clause) 

Here  the  dependent  clauses  could  not  stand  alone,  though 
each  has  a  subject  and  a  predicate;  for  the  meaning  of  each  is 
entirely  uncertain  without  the  principal  clause.  But  these  prin- 
cipal clauses  could  be  written  by  themselves  as  complete  asser- 
tions, becoming,  when  so  written,  independent  sentences: 

He  makes  mistakes. 
Rents  remain  high. 

Why,  then,  are  these  assertions  regarded  as  incomplete  when 
they  appear  as  principal  clauses  in  the  complex  sentences  above? 
The  answer  is  that  in  those  complex  sentences  the  meaning  of 
the  principal  assertion  is  limited  by  the  meaning  of  the  depend- 
ent assertion  just  as  truly  as  the  dependent  clause  is  limited  by 
the  principal  clause.  "He  makes  mistakes" — always?  No; 
only,  or  chiefly,  "when  he  tries  to  write  fast."  "Rents  remain 
high" —  in  spite  of  what  contrasted  conditions?  In  spite  of  the 
lowered  wages.  The  complete  thought  of  the  writer  in  each 
complex  sentence  is  a  unit,  made  up  of  two  incomplete  elements. 

Now  suppose,  choosing  such  a  sentence,  we  undertake  to 
express  a  similar  but  not  identical  relation  by  two  independent 
sentences. 


GOOD   SENTENCES  43 

Wages  have  decreased.     Rents,  on  the  other  hand  remain  high. 
This  does  not  differ  materially  in  meaning  from 
Wages  have  decreased,  but  rents  remain  high. 

The  grammatical  form  of  this  compound  sentence  is  that  of  two 
coordinate  clauses  joined  by  a  coordinating  conjunction.  They 
are  closely  joined  in  meaning;  more  closely  joined  than  if  the 
two  assertions,  spoken  with  a  falling  inflection  on  "decreased," 
were  written  thus: 

Wages  have  decreased.     But  rents  remain  high. 

Such  a  comparison  shows  us  that  in  a  compound  sentence  the 
two  coordinate  assertions  may  be  regarded  as  "incomplete" 
only  in  the  sense  that  it  is  primarily  the  combination  of  the  two 
which  constitutes  the  writer's  complete  thought.  They  may, 
as  just  shown,  be  separated  into  two  independent  sentences;  but 
the  resulting  change  is  a  change  not  only  in  punctuation  and 
capitalization  but  also  in  the  precise  shade  of  thought  expressed. 
It  is  the  different  inflection  of  the  voice  in  the  two  cases  —  falling 
inflection  on  "decreased"  and  a  pause  before  the  period,  rising 
inflection  and  a  shorter  pause  before  the  comma  —  that  shows 
us  the  difference.  Spoken  English  often  provides  much  more 
delicate  and  decisive  tests  of  grammatical  relations  than  does 
written  English.  Even  in  this  special  case  of  the  compound 
sentence,  therefore,  we  may  defend  the  definition  of  a  clause  as 
an  incomplete  assertion,  containing  a  subject  and  a  predicate, 
which  forms  a  part  of  a  complex  or  a  compound  sentence. 

The  most  common  error,  however,  arising  from  failure  to  grasp 
the  distinction  between  a  sentence  and  a  clause  is  found  not  in 
compound  sentences  but  in  complex.  This  is  the  error  of  writing 
a  dependent  clause  as  a  complete  sentence.  We  note,  therefore, 
as  the  most  important  point  of  this  section,  that  it  is  nearly 
always  wrong  to  write  as  a  complete  sentence  an  assertion 


44  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

beginning  with  a  subordinating  conjunction  (e.g.,  because, 
though,  while),  or  with  a  relative  pronoun.i 

34.  Sentences  and  phrases  distinguished.  A  phrase  is  a 
connected  group  of  words  not  containing  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate. In  connected  discourse  a  phrase  may  not  ordinarily  stand 
alone,  capitalized  and  punctuated  as  a  sentence.^ 

In  particular,  what  is  called  an  absolute  phrase,  containing  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative  absolute  and  a  participle, 
may  not  be  written  as  a  separate  sentence.  The  second  half  of 
the  following  sentence  is  an  absolute  phrase: 

The  case  was  finally  settled  to  the  satisfaction  of  both  parties,  the  terms 
being  decided  on  the  basis  of  previous  negotiations. 

An  absolute  phrase  may  not  be  punctuated  and  capitalized  as  a 
sentence  even  if  it  is  followed  by  a  dependent  clause,  as  in  the 
following  example: 

The  case  was  finally  settled  by  arbitration  to  the  satisfaction  of  both 
parties,  the  terms  being  such  that  each  side  gained  some  advantages. 

In  this  last  illustration  the  second  half  of  the  sentence  does  con- 
tain a  subject  and  a  predicate,  but  they  belong  to  the  dependent 
clause  of  result.  As  pomted  out  in  the  previous  section,  it  is 
incorrect  to  set  off  such  a  group  of  words  as  if  it  were  a  sentence. 
By  substitutmg  the  finite  verb  were  for  the  participle  being,  we 
may  make  an  independent  sentence.^ 

1  An  exception  is  the  case  in  which  such  an  assertion  answers  a  question.  "Why  did 
you  go  so  soon?     Because  I  was  very  late." 

-  A  phrase  may  stand  alone:  (1)  When  it  is  the  answer  to  a  question:  "Where  were 
you  standing?  In  front  of  the  house."  (2)  As  a  title,  at  the  head  of  a  composition, 
or  as  a  subhead,  such  as  the  section  titles  in  this  book.  (3)  In  condensed  matter] 
such  as  entries  in  a  catalogue,  or  in  advertisements:  "Ten-room  house.  All  modern 
improvements.     Desirable  neighborhood." 

*  Certain  modern  writers,  such  as  Kipling  and  Wells,  seek  to  add  force  to  their  style 
by  occasionally  writing  phrases  and  dependent  clauses  as  separate  sentences ;  particu- 
larly relative  clauses  beginning  with  which.  Such  eccentricities  may  be  pardoned,  or 
even  welcomed,  in  gifted  writers;  they  know  what  they  are  about.  Their  readers  may 
not  agree  with  them  tliat  these  variations  from  usage  add  anything  to  their  effectiveness ; 
but  at  least  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  classify  all  such  mannerisms  as  errors.  When 
college  students  can  write  like  Kipling,  they  may  begin  to  punctuate  as  he  does. 
HViiVA  sentences  do  not  make  a  Kipling,  nor  rows  of  three  dots  ...  a  Wells. 


GOOD   SENTENCES  45 

35.  Simple  and  compound  sentences  distinguished.  A 
simple  declarative  sentence  is  a  single  complete  assertion  con- 
taining a  single  subject  and  a  single  predicate.  A  compound 
sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  coordinate  clauses,  each  with 
its  subject  and  predicate.  Careful  distinction  should  be  made 
between  a  simple  sentence  with  a  compound  predicate  and  a 
compound  subject  with  two  subjects  and  two  predicates. 

College  students  have  more  freedom,  and  use  it  more  wisely.  (Simple 
sentence  with  compound  predicate;  only  one  subject.) 

College  rhen  and  college  women  have  more  freedom,  and  use  it  more 
msely.  (Simple  sentence  with  compound  subject  and  compound  predicate; 
still  only  one  subject  and  one  predicate.) 

College  students  have  more  freedom,  and  some  of  them  use  it  wisely. 
(Compound  sentence;  two  clauses,  each  with  its  separate  subject  and  predi- 
cate.) 

The  chief  inference  from  this  distinction  is  that  when  two  closely 
related  assertions  are  made  about  the  same  subject,  they  should 
generally  be  combined  in  a  simple  sentence  with  compound 
predicate;  not  in  a  compound  sentence  with  a  pronoun  as  the 
subject  of  the  second  clause. 

The  sophomores  learned  of  the  postponement,  and  changed  their  plans 
accordingly.     {Not  "and  they  changed".) 

36.  Compound  sentence  must  have  unity:  the  comma 
fault.  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  coordinate 
clauses  closely  related  in  meaning  and  logically  of  equal  import- 
ance. Two  simple  sentences  that  are  not  closely  related  and  not 
of  equal  importance  cannot  be  made  into  a  correct  compound 
sentence  by  running  them  together  with  a  comma  between. 
The  habit  of  separating  independent  simple  sentences  by 
commas,  known  as  the  "comma  fault,  "is  a  gross  violation  of  the 
unity  of  the  sentence.  This  is  not  merely  an  error  in  punc- 
tuation and  capitalization;  it  is  an  error  in  thinking,  a  mark  of 
a  careless  and  slovenly  or  immature  mind.  If  two  such  asser- 
tions are  not  closely  related  in  thought,  they  should  be  separated 


46  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

by  a  period  and  a  capital  letter.  If  they  are  closely  and 
obviously  related,  so  that  they  may  properly  be  combined  in  a 
compound  sentence  without  any  conjunction,  they  should  be 
separated  by  a  semicolon. 

37.  Clauses  of  compound  sentence  must  be  coordinate  in 
meaning.  A  compound  sentence  composed  of  two  statements 
joined  by  and  is  correct  only  when  the  two  statements  are  really 
coordinate,  or  of  equal  rank,  in  meaning  as  well  as  in  syntax. 
The  word  aiid  between  clauses  means:  "These  two  assertions 
are  parallel  in  meaning;  neither  one  is  dependent  in  sense  upon 
the  other."  If  one  is  the  cause  or  result  of  the  other,  if  one 
indicates  the  time  or  place  or  circumstances  of  the  action  predi- 
cated in  the  other,  such  relations  should  be  indicated  by  the  form 
of  the  sentence.  Connectives  like /or,  therefore,  should  be  intro- 
duced if  the  relation  is  causal.  In  most  such  cases  the  com- 
pound sentence  should  be  changed  to  the  complex  form,  with 
one  of  the  two  assertions  in  a  dependent  clause;  or  to  a  simple 
sentence,  with  one  of  them  condensed  into  a  phrase. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  when  one  is  learning  to  ^\Tite 
the  mature  EngUsh  of  adult  life,  of  educated  persons,  one  should 
scrutinize  every  compound  sentence  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
it  should  not  be  either  divided  into  simple  sentences  or  shifted 
to  the  complex  form.  In  a  good  expository  style  the  end  to  be 
aimed  at  is  logical  subordination  of  thought,  rather  than  shallow 
and  immature  coordination.  Ideas  are  not  to  be  strung  along 
in  a  row  like  beads  on  a  string;  their  relations  are  to  be  deter- 
mined, and  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  sentences.  In  such  a 
style  the  conjunction  mid  will  be  constantly  employed  between 
words  and  between  phrases;  but  will  seldom  be  used  alone  to 
join  clauses,  and  still  more  seldom  to  begin  sentences  or  para- 
graphs. It  is  a  marmerism  of  some  recent  novelists  and  of  many 
advertising  writers  to  begin  many  of  their  sentences  with  and. 
Sweeping  statements  that  and  should  never  begin  a  sentence 
cannot  be  defended;  but  the  habit  soon  becomes  tiresome,  and 


GOOD  SENTENCES  47 

loses  any  piquancy  it  may  at  first  have  contributed.  No 
piquancy  at  all  can  be  discovered  in  the  nervous  habit  of  many 
inexperienced  speakers  who  run  nearly  all  their  sentences 
together  with  and,  merely  as  a  sort  of  vocal  period.  A  five- 
minute  talk  of  some  such  speakers,  if  printed  from  a  verbatim 
stenographic  report,  would  turn  out  to  be  one  long  compound 
sentence  of  sLx  or  seven  hundred  words. 

38.  The  so  sentence.  Another  mark  of  crudity,  as  common 
and  as  undesirable  as  the  excessive  use  of  and  to  join  clauses,  is 
the  word  so.  A  good  rule  for  the  student  to  follow  is  never  to 
use  so  as  a  connective  except  when  it  is  naturally  followed  by 
that. 

Correct:  We  were  so  tired  when  we  reachedthe  village  that  we  decided  to 
stay  there  over  night. 

Colloquial,  not  desirable  in  written  Enghsh,  except  in  friendly  letters: 
We  were  tired  when  we  reached  the  village;  so  we  decided  to  stay  there  over 
night. 

Correct:  The  shaft  was  worn  so  thin  that  it  was  not  worth  repairing. 

Crude:  The  shaft  was  worn  very  thin;  so  we  did  not  try  to  repair  it. 

Crude:  The  stain  was  made  by  an  acid;  so  an  alkali  should  be  applied  to 
neutraUze  it. 

Correct:  Since  the  stain  was  made  by  an  acid,  an  alkali  should  be  applied 
to  neutralize  it. 

Crude:  Heavy  oils  leave  carbon  in  the  cylinders;  so  a  lighter  oil  should  be 
used. 

Correct:  A  hghter  oil  should  be  used,  for  heavy  oUs  leave  carbon  in  the 
cyUnders. 

Crude:  He  had  not  enough  money  to  pay  all  cash;  so  he  gave  his  note  for 
half  the  price. 

Correct:  Not  having  enough  money  to  pay  all  cash,  he  gave  his  note  for 
half  the  price. 

The  trouble  with  the  "so  sentence"  is  not  that  there  is  no 
authority  for  the  use  of  so  in  the  sense  of  therefore,  but  rather 
that  the  habitual  use  of  so  to  the  exclusion  of  other  means  of 
expressing  cause  and  result  is  a  mark  of  immaturity,  of  careless 
thinking.     Good  writers  seldom  employ  the  word  in  this  way. 


48  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

When  they  do,  they  never  fail  to  precede  it  by  a  mark  of  punc- 
tuation, preferably  a  semicolon.  A  "so  sentence"  properly 
punctuated  is  bad  enough;  a  "so  sentence"  without  even  a 
comma  is  an  almost  infallible  sign  of  an  untrained  writer. 

39.  Punctuation  of  the  compound  sentence.  The  two  or 
more  coordinate  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  must  always 
be  separated  by  either  a  comma  or  a  semicolon.  Which  of  the 
two  marks  shall  be  used  depends  on  the  length  of  the  sentence 
and  the  nature  of  the  connection  between  the  clauses.  There 
are  three  types,  the  punctuation  of  which  is  as  follows : 

(i)  When  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are  connected 
by  one  of  the  simple  coordinating  conjunctions  and,  but,  or,  for, 
the  conjunction  must  be  preceded  by  either  a  comma  or  a  semi- 
colon; generally  a  comma,  but  sometimes  by  a  semicolon  when 
the  clauses  are  long,  especially  if  commas  are  used  for  interior 
punctuation. 

(2)  When  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are  joined,  not 
by  one  of  the  short  conjunctions  named  above  but  by  such  words 
as  therefore,  thus,  yet,  still,  hence,  however,  then,  moreover,  the 
second  clause  should  be  preceded  always  by  a  semicolon,  never 
by  a  comma. 

(3)  When  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are  set  side 
by  side  with  no  connective  of  any  sort  between  them,  they  should 
be  separated  always  by  a  semicolon,  never  by  a  comma.i 

40.  Complex  sentence  has  clauses  of  unequal  rank.  A 
complex  sentence  has  one,  and  only  one,  principal  clause,  and 
one  or  more  dependent  clauses,  the  latter  being  of  inferior  or 
subordinate  rank.  A  dependent  clause  may  usually  be  recog- 
nized by  its  first  or  second  word,  which  is  ordinarily  a  relative 
pronoun,  a  relative  adverb,  or  a  subordinating  conjunction  such 
as  if,  although,  unless,  because,  that.  But  the  conjunction  if  is 
sometimes  omitted:  "Were  he  here,  he  would  object";  and  (2) 

1  Occasionally,  in  a  series  of  three  or  more  short  parallel  clauses  unconnected  by 
conjunctions,  especially  in  rapid  narrative  or  description,  commas  may  take  the  place 
of  semicolons:  "Bells  clanged,  whistles  blew,  crowds  hurried  by;  all  was  confusion." 


GOOD   SENTENCES  49 

a  relative  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  is  often  omitted:  "The 
trunk  I  lost  has  just  turned  up." 

41.  Dependent  clause  is  a  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb.  A 
dependent  clause,  whether  it  is  or  is  not  preceded  by  a  subordi- 
nating word,  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  a  principal  clause 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  a  dependent  clause  is  always  logically 
equivalent  to  a  single  part  of  speech,  whereas  a  principal  clause 
cannot  be  so  regarded. 

(i)  A  dependent  clause  is  the  equivalent  of  a  noun  when  it 
is  the  subject  of  a  verb  or  the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition,  or 
in  apposition  with  a  substantive.  "Whether  he  succeeded  is 
what  we  must  discover."  (Subject  of  verb.)  "They  gave  him 
what  he  asked  for."  (Object  of  verb.)  "There  is  some  doubt 
as  to  where  the  building  should  be  erected."  (Object  of  preposi- 
tion.) "The  problem  what  to  do  with  the  surplus  is  now  being 
investigated."     (In  apposition  with  problem.) 

(2)  A  dependent  clause  is  the  equivalent  of  an  adjective 
when  it  describes  or  restricts  a  substantive.  "Major  Anderson, 
whom  I  met  on  a  train  yesterday,  told  me  so."  (Descriptive  or 
non-restrictive.)  "An  officer  that  I  met  on  a  train  yesterday 
told  me  so."     (Restrictive;  see  section  43.) 

(3)  A  dependent  clause  is  the  equivalent  of  an  adverb  when 
it  modifies  the  whole  predicate  of  the  principal  clause,  answer- 
ing such  a  question  as  one  of  the  following:  Why?  When? 
How  long?  Where?  On  what  condition?  Notwithstanding 
what  circumstance?  "The  general  surrendered  because  his  sup- 
plies were  cut  off."  (Why  did  he  surrender?)  "This  division 
arrived  after  the  battle  was  over."  (When  did  it  arrive?) 
"They  remained  imtil  reinforcements  appeared."  (How  long 
did  they  remain?)  "We  rode  as  far  as  the  highway  was  pas- 
sable." (How  far?)  "The  money  will  be  refunded  if  an  error 
can  be  proved."  (On  what  condition?)  "Coal  is  still  scarce, 
although  the  miners'  strike  has  been  settled."  (Notwithstand- 
ing what  circumstance?) 


50  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

42.  Punctuation  of  complex  sentence.  A  dependent  clause 
beginning  a  complex  sentence  should  generally  be  followed  by  a 
comma.  "If  the  weather  is  cloudy,  a  longer  exposure  will  be 
necessary."  The  reason  for  the  comma  is  to  mark  the  slight 
pause  that  separates  the  conditional  clause  from  the  principal 
clause.  A  very  short  dependent  clause  sometimes  needs  no 
following  comma.  "When  he  saw  them  he  quickened  his  pace." 
A  principal  clause  beginning  a  complex  sentence  need  not  be 
separated  by  a  comma  from  a  following  dependent  clause  unless 
clearness  requires  a  pause  between  the  two.  "A  longer  exposure 
will  be  necessary  if  the  weather  is  cloudy." 

43.  Punctuation  of  descriptive  and  restrictive  clauses.  A 
clause  or  phrase  describing  the  preceding  substantive  without 
being  necessary  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  substantive  is 
called  descriptive  or  non-restrictive,  and  should  be  preceded  by 
a  comma.  "Lincoln,  who  was  called  by  Lowell  'the  first  Ameri- 
can,' was  born  in  Kentucky."  The  relative  clause  could  be 
omitted  without  making  the  subject  less  definite. 

A  clause  or  phrase  restricting  the  preceding  substantive  in 
such  a  way  that  without  it  the  substantive  would  be  indefinite 
is  called  restrictive,  and  must  never  be  preceded  by  a  comma. 
"That  president  who  was  called  by  Lowell  'the  first  American' 
was  bom  in  Kentucky." 

The  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of  clauses  or  phrases 
can  always  be  readily  detected  by  noting  whether  the  clause  or 
phrase  could  be  omitted  from  the  sentence.  If  it  could,  it  is 
non-restrictive  and  requires  a  comma;  if  it  could  not,  it  is 
restrictive  and  requires  the  omission  of  a  comma. 

44.  Commas  before  and  after  appositive  phrase.  An  apposi- 
tive  phrase,  or  group  of  words  used  as  a  noun  standing  in  appo- 
sition with  a  preceding  substantive,  must  be  setoff  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  by  commas.  "Albany, the  capital  of  the  state, 
is  situated  on  the  Hudson  River."  Note  that  the  comma  after 
the  appositive  phrase  is  as  important  as  the  comma  before  it. 


GOOD  SENTENCES  51 

45.  Commas  before  and  after  a  parenthetical  expression. 
A  parenthetical  word,  phrase,  or  clause  should  be  set  off  by 
commas.  Parenthetical  word:  "The  second  half  of  the  speech, 
however,  was  tedious."  Parenthetical  phrase:  "The  initial 
expense, at  all  events,  should  be  met  by  the  company."  Paren- 
thetical clause:  "Many  of  the  men,  it  seems,  have  disregarded 
this  rule."  A  vocative  word  or  phrase,  signifying  the  person  or 
persons  addressed,  should  be  set  off  by  commas.  "Yes,  sir,  you 
are  right."  Note  that  it  takes  hvo  commas  to  set  off  a  paren- 
thetical or  vocative  word  or  phrase  within  a  sentence — one  before 
and  one  after  the  expression  set  off. 

46.  Comma  separating  last  members  of  series.  A  comma 
should  preferably  be  placed  before  the  conjunction  and  connect- 
ing the  last  two  members  of  a  series  of  three  or  more  terms  in  the 
form  X,  y,  and  z.  "Men,  women,  and  children,"  "Boston,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago."  To  omit  this  comma,  as 
was  formerly  the  custom,  and  still  is  in  newspaper  style,  illogi- 
cally  suggests  a  closer  relation  between  the  last  two  terms  than 
between  them  and  those  which  precede.  "There  was  a  separate 
aviation  service  for  the  army,  the  navy,  and  the  Marine  Corps." 

47.  Comma  to  set  off  participial  phrase.  A  participial 
phrase  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  and  an  absolute  phrase, 
containing  a  participle  with  a  nominative  absolute,  anywhere  in 
a  sentence,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Desiring  to  have  further  information,  he  called  for  an  investigation. 
There  could  be  no  doubt,  the  circumstances  being  so  pecuUar,  that  some 
error  had  been  made. 

48.  Use  no  unnecessary  commas.  Apart  from  such  commas 
as  are  prescribed  in  the  preceding  rules,  no  comma  should  be 
used  except  where  necessary  for  clearness.  "Open"  punctuation 
now  prevails,  having  almost  completely  displaced  the  "close" 
punctuation  of  past  generations.  The  punctuation  even  of 
standard  writers  of  more  than  fifty  years  ago  is  not  now  a  desir- 


52  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

able  model,  for  they  employed  many  commas  which  would  not 
be  used  to-day.  When  in  doubt,  it  is  best  to  omit  the  comma 
unless  there  is  a  perceptible  pause  when  the  passage  is  read 
aloud.  There  are  some  cases  in  which  a  comma  is  indispensable 
in  order  to  prevent  confusion  of  one  word  with  another;  as,  for 
example,  the  comma  before  the  conjunction  for,  in  order  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  preposition. 

49.  Four  incorrect  commas.  A  comma  in  the  four  following 
cases  is  generally  incorrect: 

{a)     Before  a  restrictive  clause  or  phrase  (section  43). 

{b)  Between  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  sentence  (ex- 
cept when  the  comma  is  the  second  of  a  pair  setting  off  a  paren- 
thetical or  appositive  expression). 

(c)  Between  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  joined  by  k 
conjunctive  adverb,  where  a  semicolon,  not  a  comma,  is  required 
(section  39). 

id)  Between  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  not  joined 
by  any  connective,  where  a  semicolon,  not  a  comma,  is  required 
(section  39). 

50.  Exercise  in  the  syntax  and  punctuation  of  the  sentence. 
Punctuate  and  capitalize  the  following  passages.  Use  no  com- 
mas except  those  necessary  for  clearness  and  for  conformity  to 
the  rules  stated  in  the  preceding  sections.  Be  prepared  to  state 
what  is  the  syntax  of  each  separate  sentence,  whether  simple, 
compound,  or  complex.  In  the  case  of  complex  sentences,  note 
which  is  the  principal  and  which  the  dependent  clause.  In  the 
case  of  a  compound  sentence  composed  of  two  or  three  coordinate 
clauses  not  connected  by  conjunctions,  consider  the  relative 
effect  of  punctuating  it  with  semicolons,  and  of  dividing  it  into 
independent  sentences  separated  by  [jeriods. 

Yet  it  is  a  very  plain  and  elementary  truth  that  the  life  the  fortune  and 
the  hapi)iness  of  eveiy  one  of  us  and  more  01  less  of  those  who  are  connected 
with  us  do  depend  upon  our  knowinj^  something  of  the  rules  of  a  game 
infinitely  more  difficult  and  complicated  than  chess.it  is  a  game  which  has 


GOOD   SENTENCES  53 

been  played  for  untold  ages  every  man  and  woman  of  us  being  one  of  the 
two  players  in  a  game  of  his  or  her  own  the  chess-board  is  the  world  the 
pieces  are  the  phenomena  of  the  universe  the  rules  of  the  game  are  what 
we  call  the  laws  of  nature, the  player  on  the  other  side  is  hidden  from  us. we 
know  that  his  play  is  always  fan  just  and  patient  but  also  we  know  to  our 
cost  that  he  never  overlooks  a  mistake  or  makes  the  smallest  allowance  for 
ignorance  to  the  man  who  plays  weU  the  highest  stakes  are  paid  with  that 
sort  of  overflowing  generosity  with  which  the  strong  shows  delight  in 
strength  and  one  who  plays  ill  is  checkmated  without  haste  but  without 
remorse. 

—  Huxley,  A  Liberal  Education. 

It  is  not  easy  to  write  a  familiar  style  many  people  mistake  a  familiar 
for  a  vulgar  style  and  suppose  that  to  write  without  affectation  is  to  write 
at  random.on  the  contrary  there  is  nothing  that  requires  more  precision  and 
if  I  may  so  say  purity  of  expression  than  the  style  I  am  speaking  of  it  utterly 
rejects  not  only  all  unmeaning  pomp  but  all  low  cant  phrases  and  loose  un- 
connected shpshod  aUusions  it  is  not  to  take  the  first  word  that  offers  but 
the  best  word  in  common  use.it  is  not  to  throw  words  together  in  any  com- 
binations we  please  but  to  follow  and  avail  ourselves  of  the  true  idiom  of  the 
language  .to  write  a  genuine  famiUar  or  truly  English  style  is  to  write  as  any 
one  would  speak  in  common  conversation  who  had  a  thorough  command 
and  choice  of  words  or  who  coidd  discourse  with  ease  force  and  perspicuity 
setting  aside  all  pedantic  and  oratorical  flourishes  thus  it  is  easy  to  affect  a 
pompous  style  to  use  a  word  twice  as  big  as  the  thing  you  want  to  express  it 
is  not  so  easy  to  pitch  upon  the  very  word  that  exactly  fits  it  out  of  eight  or 
ten  words  equally  common  equally  intelligible  with  nearly  equal  pretensions 
it  is  a  matter  of  some  nicety  and  discrimination  to  pick  out  the  very  one 
the  preferableness  of  which  is  scarcely  perceptible  but  decisive  the  reason 
why  I  object  to  Doctor  Johnson's  style  is  that  there  is  no  discrimination  no 
selection  no  variety  in  it  he  uses  none  but  tall  opaque  words  taken  from  the 
first  row  of  the  rubric  words  with  the  greatest  number  of  syllables  or  Latin 
phrases  with  merely  EngHsh  terminations. 

—  HazUtt,  On  Familiar  Style. 

We  do  not  admire  the  man  of  timid  peace  we  admire  the  man  who  embodies 
victorious  effort  the  man  who  never  wrongs  his  neighbor  who  is  prompt  to 
help  a  friend  but  who  has  those  virile  qualities  necessary  to  win  in  the  stern 
strife  of  actual  hfe  it  is  hard  to  fail  but  it  is  worse  never  to  have  tried  to 
succeed  in  this  life  we  get  nothing  save  by  effort  freedom  from  effort  in  the 
present  merely  means  that  there  has  been  stored  up  effort  in  the  past  a  man 


54  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

or  his  fathers  before  him  have  worked  to  good  purpose  if  the  freedom  thus 
purchased  is  used  aright  and  the  man  still  does  actual  work  though  of  a 
different  kind  whether  as  a  %vriter  or  a  general  whether  in  the  field  of  pohtics 
or  in  the  field  of  exploration  and  adventure  he  shows  he  deserves  his  good 
fortune  but  if  he  treats  this  period  of  freedom  from  the  need  of  actual  labor 
as  a  period  not  of  preparation  but  of  mere  enjoyment  even  though  perhaps 
not  of  vicious  enjoyment  he  shows  that  he  is  simply  a  cumberer  of  the  earth's 
surface  and  he  surely  unfits  himself  to  hold  his  own  with  his  fellows  if  the 
need  to  do  so  should  again  arise. 

■ — ^  Theodore  Roosevelt,  The  Strenuous  Life. 

The  sense  for  human  superiority  ought  then  to  be  considered  our  line, as 
boring  subways  is  the  engineer's  line  and  the  surgeon's  is  appendicitis  our 
colleges  ought  to  have  lit  up  m  us  a  lasting  relish  for  the  better  kind  of  man 
a  loss  of  appetite  for  mediocrities  and  a  disgust  for  cheapjacks  we  ought  to 
smell. as  it  were  the  difference  of  quaUty  in  meii  and  their  proposals  when  we 
enter  the  world  of  affairs  about  us  expertness  in  this  might  well  atone  for 
some  of  our  awkwardness  at  accounts  for  some  of  our  ignorance  of  dynamos- 
the  best  claim  we  can  make  for  the  higher  education  the  best  smgle  phrase 
in  which  we  can  tell  what  it  ought  to  do  for  us  is  then  exactly  what  I  said  it 
should  enable  us  to  know  a  good  man  when  we  see  him. 

—  William  James,  The  Social  Value  of  tlte  College-Bred. 

51.  Compound  sentence  with  complex  clauses.  A  com- 
pound sentence  frequently  has  a  complex  clause  as  one  of  its 
coordinate  parts. 

References  to  scriptural  characters  and  incidents  are  not  conspicuous  in 
Shakespeare's  plays,  but,  such  as  they  are,  they  are  drawn  from  all  parts 
of  the  Bible,  and  indicate  that  general  acquaintance  with  the  narrative  of 
both  Old  and  New  Testaments  which  a  clever  boy  would  be  certain  to  acquire 
either  in  the  schoolroom  or  at  church  on  Sundays. 

—  Sidney  Lee,  Life  of  William  Shakespeare. 

In  this  sentence  the  two  coordinate  clauses  are  "References  .  .  . 
are  not  conspicuous  .  .  ."  and  "they  are  drawn  .  .  .  and  indi- 
cate .  .  ."  The  second  of  these  clauses  is  of  complex  structure, 
having  the  two  dependent  clauses  "such  as  they  are"  and  "which 
a  clever  boy  would  be  certain  to  acquire  ..."     Note  that  a 


GOOD   SENTENCES  55 

sentence  of  this  sort  is  more  compact  and  more  coherent  than  a 
series  of  simple  sentences  such  as  the  following  inferior  version: 

References  to  scriptural  characters  and  incidents  are  not  conspicuous  in 
Shakespeare's  plays.  There  are,  however,  some  such  references.  They  are 
drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  Bible.  They  indicate  only  a  general  acquaintance 
with  the  narrative  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Such  an  acquaintance 
a  clever  boy  would  be  certain  to  acquire  either  in  the  schoolroom  or  at 
church  on  Sundays. 

52.  Complex  sentence  with  compound  clauses.  A  com- 
plex sentence  may  have  as  its  dependent  clause  a  compound 
clause  setting  forth  a  series  of  parallel  assertions. 

We  disapprove,  we  repeat,  of  the  execution  of  Charles;  not  because  the 
constitution  exempts  the  king  from  responsibiUty,  for  we  know  that  all  such 
maxims,  however  excellent,  have  their  exceptions;  nor  because  we  feel  any 
peculiar  interest  in  his  character,  for  we  think  that  his  sentence  describes  him 
with  perfect  justice  as  "a  tyrant,  a  traitor,  a  murderer,  and  a  pubUc  enemy"; 
but  because  we  are  convinced  that  the  measure  was  most  injurious  to  the 
cause  of  freedom. 

—  Macaulay,  Essay  on  Milton. 

Here  the  principal  clause,  "We  disapprove  of  the  execution  of 
Charles,"  has  depending  on  it  three  parallel  clauses,  of  which 
the  first  and  second  are  compound.  Moreover,  each  of  these 
dependent  clauses  contains  within  itself  another  dependent 
clause:  in  the  first,  the  clause  introduced  by  "we  know  that"; 
in  the  second,  the  clause  introduced  by  "we  feel  that";  in  the 
third,  the  clause  introduced  by  "we  are  convinced  that."  Here 
there  is  complexity  within  complexity;  yet  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  is  perfectly  clear.  Grammatical  complexity  in  expert 
hands  often  makes  for  brevity  and  simplicity.  Observe  the 
somewhat  inferior  effect  produced  by  breaking  up  this  one  sent- 
ence into  six,  five  of  them  complex: 

We  disapprove,  we  repeat,  of  the  execution  of  Charles.  Our  disapproval 
is  not  based  on  the  principle  that  the  constitution  exempts  the  king  from 
responsibility.     We  know  that  aU  such  maxims,  however  excellent,  have 


56  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

their  exceptions.  Nor  do  we  disapprove  because  we  feel  any  peculiar  inter- 
est in  his  character.  On  the  contrary  we  think  that  his  sentence  describes 
him  with  perfect  justice  as  "a  tyrant,  a  traitor,  a  murderer,  and  a  public 
enemy."  The  sole  reason  why  we  disapprove  of  his  execution  is  that  we 
are  convinced  that  the  measure  was  most  injurious  to  the  cause  of  freedom. 

This  version  is  longer  and  less  effective  than  the  original,  lacking 
the  clear  and  forceful  threefold  formula  "not  because  .  .  .  nor 
because  .  .  .  but  because."  The  poorest  possible  way  of  set- 
ting down  these  ideas  would  be  in  a  series  of  nine  or  more  simple 
sentences,  as  for  example  in  the  following  crude  version:. 

We  disapprove  of  the  execution  of  Charles.  We  repeat  this  assertion. 
The  constitution  does  indeed  exempt  the  king  from  responsibility.  But  we 
do  not  disapprove  of  the  execution  on  that  ground.  AU  such  maxims  have 
their  exceptions.  Nor  do  we  disapprove  of  the  execution  on  account  of  any 
peculiar  interest  in  Charles's  character.  His  sentence  describes  him  with 
perfect  justice  as  "a  tyrant,  a  traitor,  a  murderer,  and  a  public  enemy." 
But  in  our  opinion  his  execution  was  most  injurious  to  the  cause  of  freedom. 
That  is  the  reason  for  our  disapproval  of  the  act. 

Here  we  have  real  difficulty  in  eliminating  all  complex  structure, 
in  reducing  to  the  uncorrected  forms  of  immature  expression 
the  highly  organized  thought  of  a  careful  wTiter.  Simple  sent- 
tences  have  their  place  in  all  good  writing.  They  are  indis- 
pensable for  emphasis  and  variety.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
mastery  of  the  right  kind  of  complex  sentence  enables  a  writer 
to  display  most  compactly  and  effectively  the  larger  relations  of 
thought.  Properly  constructed  complex  sentences  are  nearly 
always  shorter  than  the  equivalent  group  of  simple  sentences, 
make  clearer  the  subordination  of  one  thought  to  another,  and 
give  smoothness  to  what  might  otherwise  become  a  jerky  and 
explosive  paragraph.  For  one  more  example  study  the  following 
passage,  the  subject  of  which  is  the  character  of  the  cultivated 
man: 

He  has  the  repose  of  a  mind  which  lives  in  itself,  while  it  lives  in  the 
world,  and  which  has  resources  for  its  happiness  at  home  when  it  cannot  go 
abroad.     He  has  a  gift  which  serves  him  in  public,  and  supports  him  in 


GOOD   SENTENCES  57 

retirement,  without  which  good  fortune  is  but  vulgar,  and  with  which  failure 
and  disappointment  have  a  charm.  The  art  which  tends  to  make  a  man  all 
this  is  in  the  object  which  it  pursues  as  useful  as  the  art  of  wealth  or  the  art 
of  health,  though  it  is  less  susceptible  of  method,  and  less  tangible,  less 
certain,  less  complete  in  its  result. 

—  Newman,  The  Aim  of  University  Training. 

Into  these  three  complex  sentences  there  are  compressed,  by 
means  of  dependent  clauses  skilfully  combined,  some  nine  or 
more  distinct  assertions,  each  of  which  a  less  practiced  writer 
might  make  into  an  independent  sentence.  Further  study  of 
the  syntax  of  compound  and  complex  sentences  in  good  prose  will 
reveal  to  the  student  how  often  such  sentences  achieve  not  dif- 
fuseness  but  brevity,  not  obscurity  but  clearness,  not  weakness 
but  force. 

53.  Parallel  structure.  A  principle  of  much  importance  in 
all  types  of  sentence,  but  especially  of  sentences  combining 
several  distinct  elements  in  a  series,  is  called  the  principle  of 
parallel  structure.  Whenever  two  or  more  elements  in  a  sen- 
tence are  parallel  in  meaning,  they  should  be  parallel  in  form. 
If  one  is  a  phrase,  the  others  should  be  phrases ;  if  one  is  a  clause, 
the  others  should  be  clauses  of  the  same  type.  In  the  following 
erroneous  sentences  some  common  violations  of  this  general 
principle  are  shown,  with  corrections : 

Wrong:  Strikes  are  responsible  for  disorder,  for  loss  of  wages,  and  they 
cause  much  disturbance  of  industry. 

Right:  Strikes  are  responsible  for  disorder,  for  loss  of  wages,  and  for 
much  disturbance  of  industry. 

Wrong:  The  company  was  reorganized  in  order  to  get  more  capital,  in 
order  to  eliminate  certain  inefficient  oti&cers,  and  because  a  new  statute 
required  a  change  in  the  representation  of  stockholders. 

Right:  The  company  was  reorganized  in  order  to  get  more  capital,  in 
order  to  eUminate  certain  inefficient  officers,  and  in  order  to  comply  with  a 
new  statute  requiring  a  change  in  the  representation  of  stockholders. 

Wrong:  The  reasons  for  their  failure  were  their  inability  to  get  the  neces- 
sary books,  their  delay  in  beginnmg  the  reading,  and  also  because  they 
lacked  sufficient  preparation. 


58  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Right:  The  reasons  for  their  failure  were  their  inability  to  get  the  neces- 
sary books,  their  delay  in  beginning  the  reading,  and  their  lack  of  sufficient 
preparation. 

Right:  The  reasons  for  their  failure  were  that  they  were  unable  to  get 
the  necessary  books,  that  they  delayed  beginning  the  reading,  and  that 
they  lacked  sufficient  preparation. 

Right:  They  failed  because  they  could  not  get  the  necessary  books, 
because  they  delayed  their  reading,  and  because  they  were  not  well  prepared. 

54.  Exercise  in  sentence-building.  Select  as  a  starting- 
point  one  of  the  simple  sentences  given  below,  or  a  similar  one 
of  two  or  three  words.  Choose  a  subject  about  which  you  have 
some  ideas. 

Poetry  flourishes. 
Fashions  are  absurd. 
Chemistry  is  important. 
Ireland  is  divided. 
Forests  have  disappeared. 
Prohibition  is  unpopular. 
Professionalism  injures  sport. 
Good  tools  pay. 
Sleep  restores. 
Statistics  deceive. 


Upon  such  a  sentence  as  a  basis,  write  a  series  of  ten  numbered 
sentences,  of  the  grammatical  forms  indicated  in  the  following 
specifications.  The  illustrative  examples  given  are  based  on 
the  sentence  "Advertising  pays."  In  framing  these  sentences 
care  should  be  taken  to  write  sense,  not  nonsense  or  trivialities, 
and  to  punctuate  according  to  the  rules  and  principles  already 
laid  down. 

I.  Write  a  simple  sentence  containing  an  adjective  phrase 
modifying  the  subject  and  an  adverbial  phrase  modifying  the 
verb. 

Advertising  of  the  right  st)rt  pays  even  in  hard  times. 


I. 

Birds  migrate. 

II. 

2. 

Food  was  scarce. 

12. 

3- 

Fraternities  compete. 

13- 

4- 

Travel  is  expensive. 

14. 

5- 

Newspapers  exaggerate. 

15- 

6. 

Football  is  popular. 

16. 

7- 

Aeroplanes  have  improved. 

17- 

8. 

Music  is  appreciated. 

18. 

9- 

Roads  wear  out. 

19- 

lO. 

Milk  is  nutritious. 

20. 

GOOD   SENTENCES  59 

2.  Write  a  simple  sentence  with  a  compound  predicate. 
Magazine  advertising  has  grown  enormously  since  1890,    and  has  become 

the  chief  source  of  the  publishers'  revenue. 

3.  Write  a  compound  sentence  of  two  coordinate  clauses 
joined  by  but. 

Lavish  advertising  wUl  sell  even  a  poor  article  for  a  few  weeks,  but  false 
claims  will  ruin  the  dishonest  advertiser  in  the  end. 

4.  Change  the  previous  sentence  into  the  complex  form. 
False  claims  will  ruin  the  dishonest  advertiser  in  the  end,   though  lavish 

advertising  will  sell  even  a  poor  article  for  a  few  weeks. 

Reverse  the  order  of  the  clauses,  and  decide  which  is  better. 

5.  Write  a  compound  sentence  of  two  coordinate  clauses 

joined  by  for. 

A  national  advertising  campaign  should  not  be  undertaken  without 
adequate  capital,  for  it  takes  time  to  make  an  impression  on  the  pubHc  mind. 

6.  Change  the  previous  sentence  to  a  complex  sentence 
beginning  with  a  dependent  clause  introduced  by  since. 

Since  it  takes  time  to  make  an  impression  on  the  pubUc  mind,  a  national 
advertising  campaign  should  not  be  undertaken  without  adequate  capital. 

7.  Reverse  the  dependent  and  the  principal  clause  in  the 
preceding  sentence,  introducing  the  dependent  clause  with 
because. 

A  national  advertising  campaign  should  not  be  undertaken  without  ade- 
quate capital  because  it  takes  time  to  make  an  impression  on  the  pubUc 
mind. 

Compare  the  two  arrangements  as  to  effectiveness. 

8.  Write  a  compound  sentence  stating  in  the  first  clause  a 
reason  or  cause,  and  in  the  second  clause  an  inference  or  result 
introduced  by  hence  or  therefore. 

In  many  offices  and  households  printed  circulars  and  handbills  are  thrown 
into  the  wastebasket  unread;  hence  this  kind  of  advertising  is  of  Uttle  value. 

9.  Turn  the  same  idea  as  that  of  the  previous  compound 
sentence  into  a  simple  sentence,  placing  the  reason  or  cause  in 


6o  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

an  adverbial  phrase  beginning  with  because  of  or  on  account  of 
or  owing  io.^ 

Advertising  by  circulars  and  handbills  is  of  little  value,  owing  to  the 
custom  in  many  offices  and  households  of  throwing  such  matter  into  the 
wastebasket  unread. 

lo.  Write  a  complex  sentence  containing  at  least  three 
dependent  clauses  in  parallel  structure,  all  beginning  with  the 
same  conjunction  —  that,  if,  although,  because,  or  some  other 
subordinating  conjunction. 

The  advertising  manager's  explanation  of  this  disappointing  result  was 
that  the  campaign  was  begun  a  month  too  late;  that  it  ended  a  month  too 
soon;  that  more  money  was  spent  on  display  and  less  on  follow-up  methods 
than  was  really  necessary;  and  that  unexpected  competition  had  developed 
against  which  there  was  no  opportunity  to  prepare. 

Although  the  agency  had  large  balances  in  the  banks,  although  its  manager 
had  the  confidence  of  the  busmess  men  of  the  city,  although  large  orders 
were  almost  in  sight,  yet  because  of  this  controversy  it  was  deemed  best  to 
dissolve  the  partnership  and  go  out  of  business. 

55.  Sentences  should  begin  and  end  strongly.  Emphasis 
requires  that  a  sentence  should  begin  and  end  with  words  or 
phrases  of  relative  importance.  A  weak  ending  is  worse  than 
a  weak  beginning,  but  both  should  be  avoided.  By  transposing 
a  phrase  or  clause  from  one  position  to  another  it  is  often  pos- 
sible to  achieve  not  only  a  strong  close  but  a  more  coherent  effect 
throughout.  In  the  revision  of  a  first  draft,  rather  than  in  the 
initial  process  of  composition,  such  a  shifting  of  elements  is  best 
accomplished.  Let  us  examine  a  few  weak  sentences  taken  from 
freshman  themes,  in  order  to  see  how  easily  the  defect  may  often 
be  removed : 

Weak:  Obviously,  if  the  driving  is  to  be  mostly  in  the  country  over  rough 
roads,  a  tire  that  is  especially  tough  and  sturdy  should  be  purchased. 

I  Not  due  to.  The  word  due  is  normally  an  adjective,  correctly  used  in  an  adjective 
phrase  modifying  a  noun,  or  as  a  predicate  complement.  "The  accident,  due  to  a 
broken  rail,  caused  a  long  delay."  "The  long  delay  was  due  to  an  accident."  Although 
the  use  of  due  to  as  a  prepositional  phrase  introducing  an  adverbial  phrase  of  cause  is 
becoming  common,  the  best  writers  have  not  as  yet  adopted  it.  Sentences  beginning 
with  due  to  are  particularly  objectionable. 


GOOD   SENTENCES  6i 

Better:  For  rough  country  roads  a  tire  should  be  chosen  that  is  especially 
tough  and  sturdy. 

Weak:  This  plan  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  work  to  be  done  when 
the  corn  is  just  in  the  right  condition,  in  which  it  remains  for  a  few  days 
only. 

Better:  This  plan  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  work  to  be  done 
during  the  few  days  when  the  com  is  in  just  the  right  condition. 

Weak:  Sometimes  this  becomes  an  undesirable  task,  but  he  is  always 
glad  to  do  it,  and  tries  to  appear  so. 

Better:  Undesirable  as  this  task  sometimes  becomes,  he  tries  always  to 
perform  it  cheerfully. 

Weak:  Chemistry  makes  the  removal  of  such  stains  as  mildew  by  javelle 
water  and  iron  rust  by  oxalic  acid  comparatively  easy. 

Better:  Chemistry  makes  comparatively  easy  the  removal  of  such  stains 
as  mildew  by  javelle  water  and  of  iron  rust  by  oxaUc  acid. 

Weak:  Public  health  work  of  all  kinds  also  affords    opportunities  for 
service  of  an  extensive  kind. 
Better:  Public  health  work  also  affords  extensive  opportunities  for  service. 

Weak:  He  could,  I  believe,  say  the  most  in  the  fewest  words  of  any  man 
who  wrote  during  the  war. 

Better:  Of  all  the  war  poets  he  could  say  the  most  in  the  fewest  words. 

Weak:  Although  quite  as  adept  in  sarcasm  as  Sassoon,  Service  lent  a 
charming  bit  of  humor  and  a  joyous  lilt  to  his  verse,  seemingly  originated 
by  him. 

Better:  Service,  though  quite  as  adept  as  Sassoon  in  sarcasm,  lent  to  his 
verse  a  charming  bit  of  humor,  and  a  joyous  lilt  that  was  all  his  own. 

56.  Rearrangement  often  improves  coherence.  In  such 
revision  of  sentences  as  that  suggested  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
it  will  often  be  found  that  the  shifting  of  phrases  and  clauses 
also  improves  coherence.  Modifying  words  (such  as  only), 
phrases,  and  clauses  should  always  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
word  modified.  Not  in  rapid  writing,  but  in  the  careful  reading 
over  (preferably  aloud)  of  what  we  have  written,  various  mis- 
placements or  dislocations  are  discovered,  which  it  is  then  our 
business  to  correct. 


62  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Wrong:  It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  value  of  Bell's  work  on  the 
telephone  too  highly. 

Wrong:  The  direct  election  of  senators  has  not  only  increased  the  use 
of  money  in  senatorial  campaigns  but  also  the  choice  of  unfit  men. 

Wrong:  Changes  in  the  personnel  of  the  orchestra  have  improved  the 
musical  quality  of  its  work  perceptibly,  especially  among  the  wood  wind  players. 

Wrong:  Some  roads  are  showing  signs  of  wear  already,  constructed  within 
the  past  year. 

Wrong:  Since  the  completion  of  the  building  much  time  has  been  spent 
in  equipping  laboratories  for  the  new  courses  in  industrial  chemistry,  which 
will  cost  many  thousands  of  dollars. 

57.  Exercise  in  rearrangement  of  sentences  for  emphasis 
and  coherence,  (i)  Go  carefully  through  a  theme  previously 
written,  noting  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  each  sentence. 
Wherever  a  stronger  beginning  or  ending  can  be  produced  by 
transposition  of  a  word  or  phrase,  draw  a  loop  around  it  con- 
nected by  a  line  with  a  caret  at  the  point  of  insertion.  If  more 
than  one  such  change  has  to  be  made  in  a  single  sentence,  it 
will  be  clearer  to  rewrite  the  sentence  between  the  lines,  or  in 
the  margin.  (2)  Go  carefully  through  the  theme  a  second  time, 
searching  for  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  separated  from  the 
words  which  they  modify.  Transpositions  for  coherence  may 
be  indicated  in  the  same  way  as  above  suggested.  Note  par- 
ticularly the  position  of  only  and  not  only  with  reference  to  the 
words  with  which  they  are  logically  connected.  In  this  revision 
for  coherence  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  cancel  superfluous 
words  or  to  change  the  phraseology  slightly,  but  no  general 
rewriting  of  the  theme  should  be  undertaken  except  for  this  one 
matter  of  the  order  of  words  in  the  sentence.  By  concentrating 
attention  on  arrangement,  one  may  learn  much  that  will  be  of 
value  in  future  work. 

58.  Exercise  in  criticism  of  sentence  structure  in  newspaper 
English.  Select  from  the  daily  newspapers  or  from  a  college 
periodical  ten  sentences  which  are  conspicuously  bad  in  syntax, 
whether  because  of  violation  of  grammatical  rules  or  because  of 


GOOD   SENTENCES  63 

poor  arrangement.  Copy  each  sentence  in  its  original  form, 
and  rewrite  it  in  an  improved  form  varying  no  more  than  is 
necessary  from  the  original.  Be  prepared  in  every  case  to  state 
what  the  error  is,  and  why  the  correction  is  better. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  6.  Study  sections  32-38.  In  order  to  test  your  mastery  of 
the  grammatical  distinctions  among  sentence  types,  examine  the  syntax 
of  the  twenty-two  sentences  in  the  first  section  of  Chapter  I  of  this  book 
(four  paragraphs).  Be  prepared  to  state  whether  each  sentence  is  simple, 
compound,  or  complex.  If,  as  often  happens,  a  compound  sentence  has 
complex  clauses,  or  a  complex  sentence  has  a  compound  dependent  clauie, 
decide  which  type  is  fundamental.  The  deciding  point  is  that  a  complex 
sentsnce  has  never  more  than  one  principal  clause,  whereas  a  compound 
sentence  has  always  two  or  more  parallel  coordinate  clauses.  Be  prepared 
also  to  distinguish  phrases  and  clauses  according  to  their  function  in  the 
sentence  as  noun  phrases  or  clauses,  adjective  phrases  or  clauses,  adverbial 
phrases  or  clauses. 

Assignment  7.  Study  sections  39-49.  Perform  the  exercise  in  section 
50  by  inserting  in  pencil  the  proper  punctuation  of  the  passages  printed  in 
the  text.  Capitals  may  be  indicated  by  drawing  three  short  parallel  lines 
under  the  first  letter  of  the  word  which  begins  a  new  sentence.  After  punc- 
tuating a  passage,  read  it  aloud  to  test  the  soundness  of  the  punctuation, 
revising  as  may  be  necessary.  The  most  important  thing  in  this  exercise  is 
to  observe  scrupulously  the  rules  for  the  punctuation  of  compound  and  com- 
plex sentences  (sections  39  and  42),  and  to  use  no  unnecessary  commas. 

Assignmetit  8.  Study  sections  51-53.  Write  the  ten  sentences  required 
in  section  54. 

Assignment  9.  Study  sections  55  and  56.  Perform  the  exercise  named  in 
section  57. 

Assignment  10.     Hand  in  the  exercise  prescribed  in  section  58. 


CHAPTER  IV 
EXPOSITION   OF   PRINCIPLES   AND    OPINIONS 

59-  Exposition  of  more  advanced  subjects.  After  some 
study  and  practice  in  the  difficult  art  of  writing  good  sentences, 
we  are  ready  to  undertake  another  complete  composition.  In 
Chapter  II,  the  task  was  the  exposition  of  a  simple,  concrete, 
tangible  subject.  Most  of  the  topics  offered  for  selection  were 
chosen  from  familiar  aspects  of  daily  life  —  buildings,  machin- 
ery, farming,  sports,  social  welfare  work,  and  the  like.  From 
the  experience  then  gained  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
material  for  interesting  exposition  we  should'  now  be  able  to 
derive  suitable  methods  for  treating  harder  subjects.  By 
harder  subjects  are  not  meant  subjects  that  involve  the  con- 
sultation of  books  or  the  study  of  new  material;  but  rather 
those  subjects  which  are  hard  because  they  seem  so  easy. 
Such  are  subjects  based  upon  the  expression  of  opinions,  com- 
parisons, principles.  At  first  it  seems  a  simpler  thing  to  ex- 
plain "Why  I  am  a  Republican"  than  to  tell  a  novice  how  to  sail 
a  boat  or  catch  a  trout.  To  compare  mechanical  and  chemical 
engineering  as  fields  for  young  men  choosing  a  vocation  may 
appear  an  easy  task,  if  one  does  not  look  far  into  what  it 
involves.  But  such  subjects,  just  because  they  are  in  reality 
not  easier  but  harder  to  discuss  intelligently  and  interestingly, 
present  a  greater  challenge  to  the  mind.  From  the  list  that 
follows,  or  from  similar  subjects  approved  in  advance  by  the 
instructor,  a  subject  should  be  chosen  for  the  next  exposition. 

60.     Subjects  for  exposition  of  principles  and  opinions. 

1.  College  Friendships 

2.  The  Value  of  College  Traditions 

64 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS    65 

3.  College  Singing 

s  4.  The  Enjoyment  of  Good  Music     "^ 

5.  Manual  Work  for  Intellectual  Workers 

6.  The  Best  Way  to  Spend  Sunday 

^  7.  What  Does  an  Honor  System  Involve? 

8.  Is  Hygiene  Well  Taught  in  the  Public  Schools? 

9.  Literary  Standards,  Real  and  Pretended 
10.  The  Reform  of  Dancing 

-4 1 1.  Saving  Money 

12.  College  Students  and  the  Churches 

13.  Judging  Character  by  Personal  Appearance 

14.  Keeping  Up  with  the  News 

15.  Silence  in  the  College  Library 

16.  Bleacher  Athletics 

17.  Why  Few  First-Rate  ]\Ien  Go  into  Politics 

18.  The  Growth  of  Interdenominational  Spirit 

19.  Church  Union  in  Villages  and  Small  Towns 

20.  The  Future  of  the  Country  Newspaper 

•J  21.  The  Dechne  of  Courtesy  toward  Women 

22.  Telephones  and  Bad  Manners 

23.  Snobs 

24.  Bores  and  How  to  Deal  with  Them 

25.  A  Dollar's  Worth  of  Education 

26.  The  Meaning  of  October 

27.  Boosters  Good  and  Bad  / 

28.  City  Clubs  and  PubUc  Spirit 
~^  29.  Visual  Instruction 

30.  Social  Centers  in  Public  Schools 

31.  The  Rural  School  Problem 

32.  The  Principles  of  Cost  Accounting 

33.  How  My  Denomination  Differs  from  Others 

34.  The  Actual  Present  Principles  of  My  Political  Party 

35.  What  Religion  Means  to  Me 

36.  Past  and  Present  Opportunities  in  My  Future  Vocation 

37.  What  is  the  Most  Important  Quality  in  a  Good  Teacher? 

38.  Music  as  a  Career 

39.  Can  Nature  Study  Be  Taught? 

40.  Principles  of  Composition  Applied  to  Sketching 

41.  Jealousy  among  Professional  Men 

42.  Do  Newspapers  Misrepresent  Our  Civilization? 


66  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


Medical  Missions  in  Foreign  Lands 

Recent  Changes  in  Stage  Decoration  and  Lighting 

The  Training  of  the  Memory 

Limitations  of  the  Lecture  Method  of  Teaching 

Is  Home  Life  Disappearing? 

How  a  Bashful  Person  Can  Make  Friends 

Organizations  for  Non-Fraternity  Students 

The  Basis  of  IMunicipal  Provision  for  Public  Recreation 


61.  Exposition,  not  argument,  is  the  aim.  On  many  of 
these  subjects  the  writer's  opinion  will  be  at  variance  with  that 
of  some  of  his  probable  readers.  Proof,  however,  of  debatable 
points  is  not  to  be  here  attempted,  at  least  not  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  try  to  convince  an  obstinate  opponent.  Later  on  in  the 
year  argumentation  will  be  studied,  with  some  introduction  to 
those  methods  of  analysis  and  of  proof  and  refutation  which  are 
indispensable  to  controversial  writing.  For  the  present  it  will 
be  well  if  attention  is  centered  on  the  single  aim  to  make  one's 
opinion  clear,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  other  opinions  com- 
monly held.  In  discussing,  for  example,  the  question  "What 
Does  an  Honor  System  Involve?"  there  is  a  natural  tendency 
to  argue  for  or  against  the  system  itself;  and  at  this  stage  such 
an  attempted  argument  is  almost  sure  to  consist  of  unsupported 
contentions  devoid  of  evidence.  But  it  is  possible,  and  indeed 
highly  beneficial,  to  hold  oneself  rigidly  to  explaining  what  an 
honor  system  involves,  besides  the  mere  agreement  of  the 
student  body  to  refrain  from  dishonesty.  An  exposition  of 
Republican  or  Democratic  or  Socialist  principles  need  not  pro- 
ceed by  the  method  of  attack  upon  other  parties;  it  may  much 
more  profitably  consist  of  an  attempt  to  discover  wherein  the 
real  working  policy  of  the  party  at  the  present  time  differs  from 
the  professions  of  its  platform.  "The  Best  Way  to  Spend 
Sunday"  is  a  subject  on  which  opinions  will  differ  widely;  and 
might  seem  to  lead  at  once  into  an  argument  for  or  against  the 
necessity  of  studying  on  Sunday,  for  or  against  regular  attend- 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS    67 

ance  at  church.  But  an  equally  interesting  undertaking,  that 
which  is  suggested  at  this  time,  is,  while  recognizing  at  the 
outset  that  people  differ  as  to  these  and  other  matters,  to  lay 
down  a  few  principles  on  which  all  might  agree  —  for  example, 
that  Sunday  should  be  somehow  different  from  the  rest  of  the 
week,  and  better.  In  short,  let  controversial  aspects  of  the 
subject  be  recognized  as  such,  and  set  aside  as  they  arise. 

62.  The  mental  inventory  still  useful.  In  Chapter  II, 
analyzing  so  elementary  a  theme  as  the  use  of  a  typewriter,  we 
found  it  advantageous  to  begin  by  collecting  a  wide  variety  of 
miscellaneous  bits  of  information  and  unanswered  questions 
in  what  was  called  a  mental  inventory.  Much  of  this  material 
had  to  be  discarded;  all  of  it  had  to  be  rearranged;  but  as  a 
preparation  for  the  actual  outline  it  demonstrated  its  value. 
Now  that  we  come  to  a  more  advanced  type  of  exposition, 
having  to  do  not  with  material  objects  and  industrial  processes 
but  with  principles  and  opinions,  this  preliminary  examination 
of  the  contents  of  our  minds  is  more  necessary  than  before. 

Many  persons  suppose  that  in  order  to  write  on  a  general 
subject  like  "Good  Citizenship"  or  "What  is  Success?"  they 
have  only  to  set  down  a  string  of  harmless  commonplaces,  so 
trite  and  so  often  uttered  that  they  are  easy  to  write  almost 
without  thinking.  Such  writing  as  that  is  worse  than  useless. 
It  deceives  the  writer  into  thinking  that  he  has  said  something 
because  he  has  covered  three  or  four  pages  with  statements 
which  nobody  can  deny.  The  reader  of  such  platitudes  may 
perhaps  remark  to  the  writer,  as  Holmes  did  to  the  katydid, 

"Thou  say'st  an  undisputed  thing 
In  such  a  solemn  way." 

If  we  are  to  write  at  all  on  subjects  like  these,  we  must  first 
of  all  eliminate  the  obvious.  We  must  get  rid  of  thecommon- 
place,  self-evident  ideas  that  drift  most  easily  into  our  common- 
place minds.     The  only  way  to  do  that  is  to  write  them  down 


68  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

as  fast  as  they  arise,  hoping  that  now  and  then  in  the  stream 
of  thought  a  really  fresh  idea  may  rise  to  the  surface.  This  is 
the  justification  of  the  written  mental  inventory,  as  a  substitute 
for  that  vague,  day-dreaming  reverie  into  which  we  too  easily 
fall.  The  pencil  helps  the  brain;  paper  is  cheaper  than  ner\'ous 
tissue;  therefore  let  us  once  more  approach  the  problem  of 
composition  armed  with  a  large  memorandum-pad. 

Suppose  the  starting-point  to  be  "College  Spirit."  Write 
it  down;  and  after  it  write  the  three  questions  that  precede  the 
writing  of  any  composition  based  on  an  assignment: 

Why  should  I  write  about  this? 
What  have  I  to  say  about  it? 
How  shall  I  say  it? 

To  the  first  question  the  answers  may  be  various;  for  example 

College  spirit  is  at  a  low  ebb  in  this  college. 

College  spirit  is  something  in  which  I  admit  that  I  am  deficient. 

College  spirit  would  help  to  make  a  winning  team. 

College  spirit  is  a  phrase  much  misused. 

These  are  some  of  the  possible  reasons  why  one  might  desire 
to  clarify  one's  own  thinking  about  college  spirit,  in  preparation 
for  bringing  one's  mature  thought  to  the  attention  of  others. 
The  audience  in  mind  is  a  college  audience;  the  motive  is  to 
help  to  attain  the  benefits  which  true  college  spirit  properly 
applied  may  bring  to  the  college  community. 

In  order  to  answer  the  second  question  — "What  have  I  to 
say  about  it?" —  another  list  of  questions,  already  introduced 
in  Chai)tcr  II,  will  prove  suggestive: 

Who?     What?     When?     Where?     How?     Why? 

The  inventory  now  proceeds  by  means  of  written  answers  to 
questions  asked  mentally.  In  the  following  illustration  of  a 
mental  inventory  on  "College  Spirit"  the  written  answers  appear 
in  the  right-hand  column;  the  unwritten  questions  being  here 
supplied,  for  clearness,  in  the  left-hand  column. 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS    69 

College   Spirit 

Who  ought  to  have  it? 
What  is  it? 

When  ought  it  to  be  shown? 
Where  ought  it  to  be  shown? 
How  ought  it  to  be  shown? 
How  can  it  be  developed? 
Why  is  it  important? 


Who  ought  to  have  college  spirit? 


Divide  the  students 


What  students  in  particular? 


Why  freshmen  in  particular? 


What  freshmen  in  particular? 
Divide  the  freshmen 


College  students 

Freshmen 

Sophomores 

Juniors 

Seniors 

Graduate  students 

Professional  students 

Freshmen  in  particular 

Freshmen  ought  to  start  right 
Freshmen    ought    to    leain    college 

traditions 
Freshmen    ought    to    show    uppei- 

classmen   that   they   are   supeiior 

to  the  sophomores 
Freshmen   are   the   audience   I   am 

writing  for 
I  am  a  freshman  myself 

TFreshmen    from   large   and   famous 
J      preparatory  schools 
I  Freshmen  from  city  high  schools 
vFreshmen  from  small  country  schools 

{Rich  freshmen 
Poor  freshmen 
Freshmen  of  limited  means 

Freshmen  who  do  no  outside  work 
Freshmen    who   do   some   work   for 

extra  pocket-money 
Freshmen  who  have  to  support  them- 
selves entirely 


70 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


Who  else  besides  students? 

What  alumni  in  particular? 
Divide  the  alumni 


Who  else  besides  students  and 
alumni? 

Why  faculty? 


Who  believes  that? 

Why  not  all  the  professors? 
Divide  the  professors 


Athletic  freshmen 

Freshmen  who  have  no  interest  in 

athletics 
Freshmen  who  take  a  mild  interest  in 

watching  games 
Freshmen  who  put  their  studies  first 
Freshmen  who  put  their  studies  last 
Freshmen  who  try  to  strike  a  reason- 
able balance  between  studies  and 
other  college  interests 

I  Freshmen  pledged  to  fraternities 
[^  Neutral  freshmen 

Alumni 

Young  alumni 

Middle-aged  alumni 

Old  alumni 

Rich  alumni 

Poor  alumni 

Alumni  of  hmited  means 

Business  men 
Professional  men 

/  Former  athletes 

1  Alumni  never  interested  in  athletics 

Faculty 

College  spirit  is  just  as  important 
for  the  college  as  books  and  lec- 
tures 

All  students  and  some  professors 

{Young  instructors 
Middle-aged  assistant  professors  and 
professors 
Old  professors 

{Teachers  of  arts  subjects 
Teachers  cf  science 
Teachers  in  professional  schools 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS     71 


Why  then  do  not  all  the  faculty- 
members  agree  that  college  spirit  is 
important? 


A  different  idea?     Doesn't    every- 
body know  what  it  is? 
Divide  my  idea  of  college  spirit 


What  other  elements  could  there  be 
in  college  spirit?  Divide  the  col- 
lege activities 


{Teachers  who  are  alumni  of  this  col- 
lege 
Teachers  who  are  alumni  of  other 
colleges 

j  Teachers  whose  tenure  is  temporary 
[Teachers  whose  tenure  is  permanent 

Teachers  who  have  recently  come 

Teachers  who  have   been  here  for 

years 

('Teachers  who  like  to  play  games 

J  Teachers  who  like  to  watch  games 

I  Teachers  who  care  nothing  for  ath- 

l     letics  or  sports 
r 
Some  because  they  are  too  old 

Some  because  they  are  too  busy 

Some  because  they  are  more  inter- 
ested in  other  colleges 

Some  because  they  have  never  cared 
anything  for  athletics 

Some  because  they  have  a  different 
idea  of  what  college  spirit  is 

Cheering  at  the  games 
Going  to  watch  the  teams  practice 
Going  to  out-of-town  games 
Playing  on   a  second   team   if  you 

can't  get  on  the  first 
Going  out  for  musical  clubs  or  some 

other  college  activity  if  you  aren't 

an  athlete 
Encouraging  inter-class  rivalries 
Boosting  for  the  college 
Running  down  other  colleges 
Athletics 
Musical  clubs 
Dramatic  clubs 
<!  College  journalism 
Class  social  events 
Fraternities 
Alumni  associations 


72 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


What  else? 
Why  of  course? 

Why  not? 

Who  supposes  that? 

Who  else? 

W^ho  else? 

What  might  college  spirit  mean  for 

people  like  those? 
How  could  it? 


Divide  learning  according  to  moti\es 


Express  the  three  classes  quantita- 
tively 

Which  of  these  three  has  anything  to 
do  with  college  spirit  as  I  under- 
stand it? 

No,  you  won't  quit  yet.  Ask  it 
again:  What  has  learning  to  do 
with  college  spirit?  Divide  learn- 
ing again,  this  time  on  the  basis  of 

results 

What  has  learning  to  do  with  public 
service  and  citizenship? 


What  qualities  do  college  men  gener- 
ally display  in  later  life? 


Studies,  of  course 

It  would  hardly  be  a  college  without 
some  study 

A  college  is  supposed  to  be  a  place 
for  learning 

The  faculty 

Some  parents 

A  part  of  the  public 

They  might  think  it  included  some 
interest  in  learning 

I  don't  know 

Learning  because  you  have  to 

Learning  because  you  like  to 

Learning  because,  though  you  don't 
I      like  it,  you  know  it  leads  to  some- 
l     thing  worth  while  later  on 
('Learning  as  little  as  possible 
J  Learning  as  much  as  possible 
I  Learning  just  enough  to  build  on  it 
I     something  more  practical 

None.     I'm  ready  to  quit 


Learning  makes  "grinds" 

Learning  makes  scientists 

Learning  makes  writers  and  scholars 
i  Learning  makes  leaders  in  business 

Learning    makes    leaders   in    public 
welfare  work 

^Learning  makes  good  citizens 

It  seems  to  give  a  man  a  broader  idea 
of  his  obligations  to  society 

Democracy 

Public  spirit 
I  Independence 
■I  Tolerance 

Co-operation 

Efficiency 

Generosity 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS     73 


Have  these  qualities  anything  to  do 
with  college  spirit? 

Why  do  you  think  they  might  have? 


Are  these  quahties  peculiar  to  college 

men? 

Do    all    college    graduates    possess 
them? 

Then  what  have  they  to  do  with  col- 
lege spirit? 


Why  try  to  learn  anything  about  col- 
lege spirit  by  studying  the  world  in 
general? 


How  do  you  make  that  out? 


Except  what? 

Athletics? 

Glee  clubs? 

Class  rushes  and  hazing? 

Do    they    know    more    than    other 
people? 

What  is  it,  then,  in  which  college  men 
are  different? 

Who  is  she? 

Did  they  ever  see  her? 

Then  why  do  they  sing  about  her? 


I  never  thought  of  it,  but  they  might 
have 

They  don't  seem  the  kind  of  things 
that  men  would  leain  solely  from 
books 

They  are  not 

No 

A  college  course  seems  to  produce 
them  more  often  than  a  business 
career  begun  immediately  after 
high-school 

College  is  a  part  of  the  world  in  gen- 
eral, a  little  world  in  itself,  a  cross- 
section  of  society 

Its  students  come  from  all  classes  of 
society 

The  same  motives  govern  them 

The  same  virtues  and  the  same 
vices  are  found  among  them 

In  fact,  they  are  really  just  the  same 
as  other  people,  except  — 

Something  intangible 

No 

No 

No 

They  think  so,  but  nobody  believes 
them 

They  call  it  Alma  Mater 

The  ideal  of  the  college 

No 

She  stands  to  them  for  what  they 
believe  to, be  the  best  things  in  Ufa 


74 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


What  sort  of  things? 


Honor 

Truth 
Courage 
Friendship 
.Service 


Where  do  they  see  these  things? 


In  college  men  of  the  past  —  prom- 
inent alumni 

In  college  men  of  the  future  — 
dreams  about  days  to  come,  col- 
lege songs,  etc. 


Do  they  see  these  things  in  college 
men  of  the  present  —  in  their  own 
classmates,  and  others  now  in  col- 
lege? 

How  can  college  spirit  include  this 
intangible  element? 


That  is  still  too  vague.  I  get  a  gen- 
eral idea  but  nothing  clear  enough 
to  write  about.  When  and  where 
can  these  ideals  actually  affect  the 
daily  life  of  a  freshman  a  month 
after  he  enters  college?  Divide  the 
ideals  —  take  them  one  by  one, 
and  look  for  examples 


Not  so  clearly;  too  close  to  see 
clearly;  will  see  them  some  day. 
Takes  time  to  see  these  things. 


By  applying  to  all  the  elements  in 
college  life,  including  the  mtel- 
lectual  along  with  the  athletic  and 
the  social,  the  test  of  these  ideals 
for  which  the  college  stands 

1.  Honor.     What    is    it?     Hard    to 

say.     Focus  the  idea  by  setting 

down  the  opposite. 
Opposite:  Dishonor 

Example:  A  freshman  can  re- 
fuse to  lie  his  way  out  of  a 
scrape  without  betraying 
others. 

2.  Truth.     What   is   it?     Can't   be 

defined.  State  the  opposite. 
Opposite:  Deceit,  lie. 

E.xample:  A  freshman  can 
stand  out  against  cheating 
in  tests  and  composition 
assignments,  without  put- 
ting on  a  pious  air  and  pos- 
ing as  a  saint. 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS  75 


What,  then,  is  college  spirit? 


How  does  that  take  the  place  of  cheer- 
ing at  games,  sharing  in  class  rival- 
ries, and  all  that  sort  of  thing? 


3.  Courage.      Opposite:    Cowardice 

Example :  A  freshman  can  take 
hard  knocks  without  whining 
in  a  game,  a  rush,  a  class 
scrap,  or  any  other  contest 
of  muscles  —  or  of  brains. 

4.  Friendship.     Opposite:  Snobbish- 

ness, selfishness 

Example:  A  freshman  can  be- 
friend a  friendless  class- 
mate who  has  no  natural 
attractiveness,  to  keep  him 
from  getting  discouraged 
and  leaving  college  before 
he  has  really  had  a  chance. 

5.  Service.     Opposite:  Laziness 

Example:  A  freshman  can  do 
some  tedious  job  for  his  class 
or  for  the  college,  when  he 
knows  he  will  get  no  thanks 
if  he  succeeds,  and  no  pardon 
if  be  fails.    Name  such  a  job. 

College  spirit  is  working  with  a  good 
will  for  the  college,  by  working 
with  and  for  all  the  men  and  all  the 
ideals  that  make  up  the  college. 

It  doesn't  take  the  place  of  them;  it 
includes  them  and  a  great  deal 
more;  but  it  is  the  part  that  is 
most  likely  to  be  forgotten. 


63.     Eliminating  irrelevant  and   commonplace  matter.     In 

this  long,  rambling  dialogue  between  the  inquiring  and  the 
replying  mind,  between  me  and  myself,  there  is  much  that  is 
irrelevant  and  useless  for  the  immediate  purpose.  There  will 
be  no  need  for  the  freshman  to  offer  advice  to  indifferent 
alumni  or  faculty  members  about  their  lack  of  college  spirit, 
though  he  has  by  his  analysis  discovered  material  bearing  upon 


76  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 

them.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  method  of  persistent 
inquiry,  repeated  division  of  every  new  term  into  three  or  more 
parts,  is  one  that  ultimately  yields  results.  It  may  seem  a 
foolish  thing  to  set  down  brace  after  brace,  and  then  try  to  fill 
in  the  blanks  with  different  possible  divisions  of  some  appa- 
rently unimportant  term.  Only  in  this  way,  however,  are  we 
likely  to  make  much  headway  with  a  subject  like  this.  For 
example,  we  spent  some  time  trying  to  find  out  why  some 
college  teachers  seem  to  be  lacking  in  what  the  undergraduate 
calls  college  spirit,  and  none  of  that  material  is  likely  to  be 
used  in  the  essay;  but  it  was  in  this  connection  that  we  were 
led  for  the  first  time  to  wonder  whether  there  might  be  some- 
thing more  in  the  idea  of  college  spirit  than  is  ordinarily 
attached  to  it.  If  we  had  begun  by  asking  "What  is  college 
spirit?"  and  had  been  satisfied  with  the  usual  answer,  the 
inventory  would  have  been  much  shorter,  but  it  would  have 
been  worthless. 

If,  now,  we  undertake  to  eliminate  not  only  the  irrelevant 
but  the  obvious  part  of  this  material,  to  cut  out  what  is  usually 
said  and  therefore  does  not  need  to  be  said  again,  we  shall 
find  that  there  is  still  plenty  left.  The  inventory  is  long 
enough  to  permit  and  require  vigorous  cutting;  that  is  the 
value  of  it.  One  cannot  start  out  to  write  on  "College  Spirit" 
solely  on  the  negative  principle  of  avoiding  commonplaces. 
Good  conversations  are  not  begun  by  resolving  "I  must  not 
talk  about  the  weather."  Good  writing  does  not  arise  from 
the  rule  "I  must  not  be  trite."  A  superabundance  of  material 
of  all  sorts,  among  which  the  trite  things  are  set  down  as  points 
of  departure,  leading  in  unexpected  directions,  yields  a  basis 
for  selection.     Selection  brings  success. 

64.  Beginning  by  correcting  an  erroneous  or  incomplete 
view.  A  good  way  to  begin  almost  any  kind  of  exposition  is  to 
to  state  a  popular  but  incorrect  or  incomplete  \'iew,  in  order  to 
correct  or  supplement  it.     Thus  an  essay  upon  patriotism  may 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS  77 

open  with  the  remark  that  a  patriot  is  often  supposed  to  be  a 
man  who  always  takes  off  his  hat  to  the  flag,  and  who  main- 
tains the  invariable  superiority  of  the  American  form  of  govern- 
ment to  any  other.  A  discussion  of  the  cultural  element  in 
college  education  may  start  by  citing  the  ordinary  misconcep- 
tion of  culture  as  a  smattering  of  foreign  languages.  So,  in 
this  attempt  to  define  college  spirit,  we  may  choose  to  begin 
by  admitting  that  there  is  much  truth  in  the  current  notion 
of  college  spirit,  as  tested  by  the  genuineness  with  which 
students  support  their  athletic  representatives.  This  notion 
is  sound  so  far  as  it  goes;  our  contention  is  to  be  that  it  does  not 
go  far  enough.  We  give  it  a  short  first  paragraph,  instead  of 
spreading  it  out  over  the  whole  composition ;  and  pass  at  once 
to  other  kinds  of  college  spirit,  less  considered  and  less  prac- 
ticed. We  have  too  much  else  to  say  to  waste  time  enlarging 
upon  what  has  been  so  often  said  before. 

65.  Divisions  depend  on  the  audience.  On  such  a  basis 
the  topic  sentence  for  the  first  division  of  the  outline  is  already 
evident.  But  beyond  that  point  the  mental  inventory  affords 
no  decisive  clew  to  the  second  and  third  divisions.  Having 
canceled  as  superfluous  for  our  present  purpose  the  portions 
dealing  with  alumni  and  faculty,  we  scrutinize  the  remainder 
of  the  inventor)^  for  hints  as  to  how  to  proceed.  Several  pos- 
sible divisions  emerge: 

I.     College  spirit  is  indeed  roughly  tested  by  student  support  of  athletics 
and  college  customs,  but  there  is  much  more  than  that  needed  to 
make  a  good  college. 
II.     A  good  college  is  a  college  where  men  of  all  sorts  learn  to  study  and  to 
play  by  cooperative  competition. 

III.  The  spirit  of  such  a  college  is  not  so  high  as  the  ideals  of  its  best 
men,  nor  so  low  as  the  aims  of  its  poorest;  but  Hke  any  democracy 
it  should  strive  to  raise  the  average. 

IV.  Freshmen  can  help  in  the  improvement  of  college  spirit  in  several 
concrete  ways. 


78  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

I.     College  spirit  is  the  spirit  of  getting  together. 
II.     We  can  get  together  when  the  team  is  winning  and  all  the  odds  are 
in  our  favor;  can  we  get  together  when  everything  but  the  college 
itself  tends  to  draw  us  apart? 
III.     Freshmen  can  get  together  by  helping  one  another  to  win  all  the 
battles  and  all  the  prizes  that  college  life  brings  to  a  college  man. 

I.     College  spirit  is  not  all  that  it  should  be  in  this  college,  although  most 
of  us  do  our  part  in  the  conventional  ways. 

II.     We  freshmen  do  not  at  once  grasp  the  true  college  spirit,  because 

A.  Some  of  us,  coming  from  large  preparatory  schools,  have  not  yet 
outgrown  the  high-school  attitude. 

B.  Others,  entering  with  more  money  or  more  influential  family 
connections  than  their  classmates,  have  not  yet  learned  that  these 
things  do  not  count  in  the  real  college  spirit. 

C.  Still  others  are  so  impressed  with  their  own  importance  on 
account  of  a  few  high  marks  or  prizes  that  they  cannot  see  any- 
thing worth  working  for  in  college  besides  grades  and  scholar- 
ships . 

D.  Many  of  us  are  too  lazy  either  to  play  hard  or  to  study  hard, 
and  therefore  their  one  idea  of  college  spirit  is  yelling  for  the 
team. 

III.  Such  freshmen  —  and  most  of  us  must  admit  belonging  more  or  less 
to  one  of  these  classes  —  may  well  try  to  improve  the  college  spirit 
of  the  freshman  class  in  these  ways: 

A.  By  mixing  with  men  from  other  preparatory  schools,  dropping  or 
lessening  connections  with  high-school  fraternities  and  outside 
social  circles. 

B.  By  ceasing  to  talk  about  social  prestige,  to  squander  money  on 
luxuries,  to  snub  poorly  dressed  classmates;  and  by  trying  to 
live  down  the  fact  that  they  were  born  great. 

C.  If  a  man  is  perfectly  sure  that  he  is  on  the  high  road  toward 
becoming  a  "grind,"  let  him  break  loose  once  in  a  while  and  go 
to  a  game  or  a  class  meeting  instead  of  to  the  library,  just  for  the 
good  of  his  soul. 

D.  If  we  are  doing  nothing  to  excel  either  with  brains  or  with  arms 
and  legs,  but  only  shouting  for  somebody  else  to  do  it  for  us, 
then  we  arc  doing  less  than  our  share  for  the  college,  and  the 
college  will  do  less  than  we  expect  for  Ub, 


EXPOSITION  OF  PRINCIPLES  AND  OPINIONS    79 

IV.  If  our  class  should  really  start  a  reform  of  that  sort,  we  should  at  once 
demonstrate  our  superiority  to  the  sophomores,  and  should  turn  out 
three  years  from  now  to  be  the  best  leaders  the  college  has  ever  had. 

66.  Five  principles  of  good  exposition.  All  these  methods 
of  treating  the  subject,  and  many  more,  are  implicit  in  the 
material  brought  out  by  the  mental  inventory.  Each  of  them 
would  need  revision  and  amplification  and  illustration.  We 
need  not  carry  the  process  further  in  order  to  demonstrate 
these  principles  applicable  to  all  expository  writing,  but  particu- 
larly to  exposition  of  more  or  less  abstract  subjects: 

(i)  All  possible  material  dealing  even  remotely  with  the 
subject  should  be  surveyed  by  the  questionnaire  method, 
repeating  over  and  over  again  the  six  questions:  Who?  What? 
When?  Where?  How?  Why?  At  every  stage  when  a  question 
cannot  be  immediately  answered,  a  written  division  of  the 
topic  into  sub-topics  or  sub-classes  will  probably  give  the  clew. 
The  mark  of  interrogation  and  the  brace  are  great  mental 
stimulants. 

(2)  Commonplace,  hackneyed  material  can  be  best  recog- 
nized as  such  when  it  appears  in  the  mental  inventory  side 
by  side  with  fresher  aspects  of  the  subject.  It  may  be  either 
completely  eliminated  from  the  outline  proper,  or  used  as  a 
point  of  departure,  as  something  to  be  taken  for  granted  and  to 
be  used  as  suggesting  more  interesting  sides  of  the  question. 

(3)  In  choosing  the  main  divisions  for  the  outline,  the 
deciding  considerations  among  several  possibilities  will  be 
freshness  and  adaptability  to  the  particular  audience. 

(4)  Complete  sentences  with  carefully  framed  predicates 
are  even  more  important  in  outlines  for  themes  of  this  sort  than 
for  the  simpler  and  more  tangible  subjects  of  Chapter  II. 

(5)  Examples  and  illustrations  from  real  life  are  the  hardest 
things  to  get,  and  the  most  indispensable  for  interest  and 
force. 

This  essay,  testing  one's  ability  to  stimulate  and  to  organize 


So  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

one's  independent  thinking,  will  be  of  great  and  permanent 
value  to  every  freshman  who  undertakes  it  with  ambition, 
works  it  out  with  thoroughness,  and  puts  it  into  final  form  with 
all  the  vigor,  earnestness,  and  humor  at  his  command.  Better 
far  to  do  one  such  task  at  maximum  intensity  than  to  write  a 
dozen  perfunctory  papers,  in  none  of  which  appears  the  true 
note  of  personality  and  genuine  self-expression. 

The  question  is  still  "Can  you  make  yourself  understood?" 
You  have  something  to  say:  find  out  what  it  is;  decide,  deliber- 
ately and  carefully,  what  is  the  best  way  to  do  it;  and  then 
write  at  top  speed  until  the  thing  is  done.  Revise  it  the  next 
day,  in  cold  blood,  when  all  the  glow  of  creative  energy  has 
departed.  Disgust  and  despair  will  threaten  you  then;  but 
cheer  up:  it  is  a  poor  thing,  but  your  own.  It  is  you — on 
paper;  you,  with  all  your  inarticulate  groping  after  better 
expression  of  your  thought;  you,  with  your  own  unique  view  of 
what  no  one  else  can  see  in  just  the  same  way.  It  is  your  best, 
to-day;  and  will  lead  to  a  better  achievement  to-morrow. 
Learning  how  to  write  begins  by  learning  how  to  think,  and 
that  takes  time;  but,  unlike  most  other  studies,  no  step  really 
learned  here  is  ever  forgotten.  Four  or  five  hours  of  hard,  con- 
secutive thinking  on  this  composition  assignment  may  mean 
the  beginning  of  mastery  in  months  and  years  to  come. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  II.  Read  sections  59-62.  Choose  a  subject  from  the  list 
in  section  60,  and  write  a  mental  inventory,  spending  at  least  two  hours  on 
the  assignment.     Consider  several  possible  divisions. 

Assignment  12.  Read  Sections  6.^-66.  Write  a  complete  sentence  out- 
line of  the  subject.  Study  the  outline  in  order  to  be  able  to  present  the 
subject  orally  if  called  on  to  do  so. 

Assignment  13.  Write  a  theme  of  six  to  eight  hundred  words  based  on 
the  outline. 


CHAPTER  V 
GOOD   PARAGRAPHS 

67.  The  paragraph,  not  the  sentence,  is  the  unit  of  con- 
nected discourse.  In  planning  a  house,  the  rooms  required 
will  determine  everything  else.  Neither  the  walls  and  partitions 
in  themselves,  nor  the  individual  bricks  and  boards,  are  so 
important.  A  vestibule,  an  entrance  hall,  a  living  room,  a 
dining-room,  a  kitchen,  so  many  bedrooms —  these  are  the  units 
which  the  architect  must  arrange  in  accordance  with  his  client's 
wishes.  Paragraphs  in  an  expository  composition  are  like  the 
rooms  in  a  house.  Each  has  its  place  in  the  whole  structure; 
each  has  its  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  whole;  each  has  an 
interior  unity  of  its  own,  in  the  placing  of  its  doors  and  windows, 
even  in  its  decoration,  its  color-scheme.  To  undertake  a  piece 
of  writing  extending  to  six  or  eight  hundred  words  by  merely 
setting  one  word  after  another,  or  one  sentence  after  another,  is 
to  fail  in  this  unity  of  impression. 

It  is  true  that  a  practiced  writer  in  rapid  composition  will  not 
always  consciously  stop  at  a  certain  point  with  the  thought 
"Now  I  have  finished  a  paragraph;  I  must  begin  a  new  topic 
on  a  new  line."  But  such  a  writer  finds  when  he  reads  over 
his  hastily  sketched  manuscript  that  somewhere  on  each  closely 
written  page  there  is  discovered  a  point  at  which  one  aspect  of 
the  subject  is  rounded  out,  and  a  transition  to  a  new  theme  is 
more  or  less  clearly  indicated.  At  these  points  he  marks  his 
paragraph  sign  (^)  and  adds  such  transitional  words  as  may  be 
necessary.  His  brain  has  for  the  most  part  automatically 
paragraphed  his  manuscript  in  substance,  though  not  in  form. 


82  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Long  practice  has  taught  him  to  think  in  paragraphs.  Practice 
is  the  only  way  in  which  that  kind  of  thinking  can  be  learned. 
Beginners  seldom  find  that  they  can  get  good  paragraphs  by 
inserting  the  signs  of  indention  after  the  writing  has  been 
done  in  one  solid  block,  sentence  by  sentence.  For  them  it  is 
only  the  conscious  attempt  to  organize  sentences  into  coherent 
groups  that  can  give  to  each  paragraph  its  first  essential,  unity. 

In  a  short  composition  written  on  the  basis  of  a  good  outline, 
with  a  paragraph  for  each  main  division,  a  degree  of  formal 
mechanical  unity  in  each  paragraph  is  already  assured;  but  there 
remains  the  task  of  fitting  together  the  parts  in  their  relation  to 
the  whole.  A  mechanic  setting  up  a  complicated  machine  has 
an  advantage  if  the  parts  have  been  assorted  into  piles,  corre- 
sponding to  the  larger  groups  or  assemblies  of  the  machine. 
His  real  problem,  however,  still  remains  —  fitting  the  gears 
together,  adjusting  the  bearings,  placing  the  set-screws  and  lock- 
nuts,  so  that  the  whole  thing  when  completed  will  not  only  run, 
but  run  right.  Paragraphs  based  merely  upon  a  sorting  of 
parts,  like  the  workman's  boxes  full  of  wheels  and  springs  and 
bolts,  are  a  stage  —  a  necessary  stage  —  in  learning  how  to  make 
paragraphs  that  really  hang  together, 

68.  A  good  expository  paragraph  has  usually  at  least  five 
or  six  sentences.  While  the  length  of  paragraphs  in  good  expo- 
sition varies  from  one  sentence  to  ten  or  fifteen,  or  even  more, 
the  average  will  seldom  be  under  five.  Reckoned  in  words,  as 
already  mentioned  in  Chapter  II,  the  suitable  length  may  be 
from  one  to  three  hundred  words.  From  the  standpoint  of 
freshman  composition,  any  paragraph  much  shorter  or  much 
longer  than  a  page  of  manuscript,  or  half  a  page  of  typewriting, 
may  be  looked  upon  witli  suspicion.  This  rough  average, 
between  one  hundred  and  fifty  and  two  hundred  words,  allows 
for  the  statement  of  the  main  subject  of  the  paragraph  in  a 
topic  sentence;  for  the  development  of  the  idea  by  discussion  of 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  83 

one  sort  or  another;  for  the  enforcement  or  restatement  of  the 
point  for  emphasis;  and  for  such  transitional  phrases  or  sentences 
as  will  tie  it  to  the  paragraphs  that  precede  and  follow.  The 
reason  why  shorter  paragraphs  are  ordinarily  defective  —  with 
the  exceptions  named  below  —  is  not  that  a  certain  number  of 
lines  or  inches  on  the  paper  must  be  covered,  but  that  a  certain 
degree  of  fulness  in  illustration  and  development  of  the  topic 
is  essential  to  clearness,  interest,  and  force.  Paragraphs  much 
longer  than  two  hundred  words  —  though  common  in  books  and 
articles  by  experienced  writers  —  should  ordinarily  be  divided 
when  found  in  freshman  themes;  for  (i) they  are  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  scale  of  treatment  of  a  brief  theme,  and  (2)  they 
probably  owe  their  length  to  the  admission  of  material  that 
properly  belongs  elsewhere. 

69.  One-sentence  paragraphs  are  sometimes  desirable. 
Less  often  than  in  narrative  writing  (where  conversation,  for 
example,  is  broken  into  separate  paragraphs  for  every  utterance 
by  a  different  speaker),  paragraphs  shorter  than  the  average 
above  named  are  used  in  exposition  for  special  efifects.  The 
following  cases  illustrate  some  of  these  effects  aimed  at  in  good 
one-sentence  paragraphs: 

(i)  In  many  kinds  of  technical  writing,  where  the  purpose 
is  not  to  discuss  a  subject,  but  merely  to  enumerate  the  steps 
in  a  process,  or  to  give  directions  for  some  mechanical  or  scien- 
tific operation,  each  sentence  in  such  a  passage  may  be  separately 
paragraphed.  Such  paragraphs,  like  the  paragraphs  in  this 
section,  are  often  serially  numbered. 

(2)  In  business  letters,  which  are  often  a  form  of  exposition, 
short  paragraphs  of  one  or  two  sentences  each,  properly  con- 
structed and  arranged,  often  promote  clearness  and  force. 

(3)  In  advertisements,  which  are  a  combination  of  exposition 
and  argument,  short  paragraphs,  as  well  as  short  sentences,  are 
used  for  emphasis;  and  also  for  the  effective  typographical 


84  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

display  aflforded  by  the  large  proportion  of  white  space  on  the 
page. 

(4)  In  all  kinds  of  expository  writing  a  one-sentence  para- 
graph is  proper  for  announcing  the  division  of  a  subject  into  the 
several  heads  which  form  respectively  the  topics  of  the  succeed- 
ing paragraphs.  Such  a  formal  announcement  of  the  division 
is  seldom  necessary  in  a  short  written  exposition  of  four  or  five 
paragraphs,  and  when  included  may  well  come  at  the  end  of  the 
first  paragraph;  but  may  be  desirable  in  any  composition  extend- 
ing to  two  thousand  words  or  more. 

(5)  A  transitional  sentence  connecting  one  part  of  a  subject 
with  another  main  division  ordinarily  forms  the  beginning  or  the 
end  of  a  paragraph  in  short  compositions  like  weekly  themes; 
but  in  a  longer  essay  such  a  sentence  may  be  separately  para- 
graphed when  it  links,  not  one  paragraph  with  the  next,  but  one 
whole  group  of  paragraphs  with  another  group. 

Aside  from  these  exceptions,  none  of  which  ordinarily  applies 
to  short  expository  themes,  a  paragraph  of  less  than  five  sen- 
tences is  probably  too  short,  because  it  is  undeveloped. 

70.  Paragraph  development  means  unfolding  the  ideas 
implied  in,  or  suggested  by,  the  topic  sentence.  Since  exposi- 
tion is  literally  the  "bringing  out"  or  "setting  out"  for  examina- 
tion of  the  parts  composing  a  whole,  to  expound  a  topic  sentence 
is  to  "bring  out"  what  is  "folded  in"  or  "implied"  in  it.  In  a 
fully  developed  outline  the  material  for  developing  each  para- 
graph from  a  topic  sentence  is  already  provided  by  the  subdivi- 
sions. When,  however,  one  writes  with  a  skeleton  outline 
enumerating  only  the  main  divisions,  or  without  any  written 
outline  at  all,  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  to  proceed.  There 
arc  many  methods  of  paragraph  development,  including  some 
too  subtle  to  be  readily  classified  or  imitated;  but  among  them 
are  about  six  methods  so  widely  used  and  so  easily  grasped  that 
they  should  be  memorized,  and  practiced  on  all  suitable  occasions. 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  85 

71.  A  paragraph  may  be  developed  by  illustration,  compari- 
son or  contrast,  causes,  results,  reasons,  inferences.  These 
six  methods  may  be  defined  as  follows: 

-^r^i)    Development  by  illustration  proceeds    by  specifying 
/details  derived  from  the  main  proposition,  or  by  naming  several 

iexamples  which  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  topic  sentence. 
V(2)     Development  by  comparison  likens  the  situation  pre- 
sented in  the  topic  sentence  to  another,  similar  in  some  respect. 
Development  by  contrast  names  opposite  cases  or  situations.  . 

V^he  two  are  of  ten  combined  in  the  same  paragraph.  / 

/^(3)     Development  by  causes  inquires  into  the  conditions  that 

/have  led  to  the  state  of  affairs  presented  in  the  topic  sentence;, 

\  events  or  tendencies  that  have  produced  this  outcome.  / 

(4)     Development  by  results  points  out  the  effects  or  conse- 
quences due  to  the  cause  named  in  the  topic  sentence. 
^5)     Development  by  reasons  examines  the  proposition  to 

/4how  why  it  is  alleged  to  be  true,  naming  facts  or  opinions  that 

Mead  the  writer  to  believe  the  proposition  sound. 

(6)  Development  by  inferences,  starting  from  the  topic  sen- 
tence as  a  premise,  assumed  or  previously  defended,  proceeds 
by  stating  conclusions  or  deductions  which  logically  follow. 

The  last  two  of  these  are  methods  regularly  employed  in 
argumentation,  but  often  used  in  non-controversial  exposition 
as  well.     Notice  the  distinction  between  reasons  and  causes: 

iCauses  answer  the  question,  "How  did  things  come  to  be  as 
they  are?"  Reasons  answer  the  question,  "Why  do  I  believe 
this  statement  to  be  true?'/  Notice  also  the  parallel  difference 
between  inferences  and  results:  Results  answer  the  question, 
"What  happens,  or  has  happened,  because  of  the  situation  pre- 
sented in  the  topic  sentence?"  Inferences  answer  the  question, 
"If  I  accept  the  truth  of  the  topic  sentence,  what  more  must  I 
believe  as  a  logical  consequence  of  that  proposition?" 

A  paragraph  developed  by  results  may  at  the  same  time  pre- 
sent those  results  as  reasons  for  accepting  the  main  proposition. 


86  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

For  example,  the  topic  sentence,  "SeK-support  in  college  is  likely 
to  be  injurious  to  scholarship,"  might  be  developed  by  showing 
some  of  the  results  that  are  alleged  to  follow  from  too  much 
outside  work,  which  results  are  themselves  the  reasons  offered 
to  support  the  opinion  stated  in  the  topic  sentence.  This  again 
is  a  method  of  procedure  normal  in  argumentation,  where  proof 
must  be  offered  to  confirm  the  alleged  results.  When  employed 
in  exposition  it  is  too  likely  to  degenerate  into  unsupported 
assertion  of  debatable  opinions  for  which  no  evidence  is  supplied. 
But  in  so  far  as  the  writer  clearly  recognizes  that  his  views  are 
subject  to  attack,  though  his  present  purpose  is  merely  to  state 
them  clearly,  this  danger  may  be  avoided.  Further  treatment 
of  this  point  must  be  postponed  until  we  take  up  the  study  of 
argumentation. 

72.  Examples  of  paragraph  development.  The  following 
paragraphs  show  how  these  sLx  methods  are  applied.  They 
should  be  carefully  studied  in  order  that  the  student  may  not 
fall  into  the  error  of  attempting  a  purely  mechanical  application 
of  the  principle. 

I.  Development  by  Illustration 

Such  was  the  man  who,  at  the  agje  of  thirty-three,  became  headmaster  of 
Rugby.  Ilis  outward  appe;irance  was  the  index  of  his  inward  character: 
everything  about  him  denoted  energy,  earnestness,  and  the  best  intentions. 
His  legs,  perhaps,  were  shorter  than  they  sliould  ha\-c  been;  but  the  sturdy 
athletic  frame,  especially  when  it  was  swathed  (as  it  usually  was)  in  the 
flowing  robes  of  a  Doctor  of  Divinity,  was  full  of  an  imposing  vigour;  and 
his  head,  set  decisively  upon  the  collar,  stock,  and  bands  of  ecclesiastical 
tradition,  clearly  belonged  to  a  person  of  eminence.  The  thick,  dark  clusters 
of  his  hair,  his  bushy  eyebrows  and  curling  whiskers,  his  straight  nose  and 
bulky  chin,  his  firm  and  upward-curving  lower  lip  —  all  these  revealed  a 
temperament  of  ardor  and  determination.  His  eyes  were  blight  and  large; 
they  were  also  obviously  honest.  And  yet  —  why  was  it?  —  was  it  in  the 
lines  of  the  mouth  or  the  frown  on  the  forehead? —  it  was  hard  to  say,  but  it 
was  unmistakable  —  there  was  a  slight]}'  puzzled  look  upon  the  face 
of  Dr.  Arnold. 

—  L_>tton  Strachcy,  Emincnl  Victorians. 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  87 

There  is  nothing  human  in  nature.  The  earth,  though  loved  so  dearly, 
would  let  me  perish  on  the  ground,  and  neither  bring  forth  food  nor  water. 
Burning  in  the  sky  the  great  sun,  of  whose  company  I  have  been  so  fond, 
would  merely  burn  on  and  make  no  motion  to  assist  me.  Those  who  have 
been  in  an  open  boat  at  sea  without  water  have  proved  the  mercies  of  the 
sun,  and  of  the  deity  who  did  not  give  them  one  drop  of  rain,  dying  in  misery 
under  the  same  rays  that  smile  so  beautifully  on  the  flowers.  In  the  south 
the  sun  is  the  enemy;  night  and  coolness  and  rain  are  the  friends  of  man. 
As  for  the  sea,  it  offers  us  salt  water  which  we  cannot  drink.  The  trees  care 
nothing  for  us;  the  hill  I  visited  so  often  in  days  gone  by  has  not  missed  me. 
The  sun  scorches  man,  and  will  in  his  naked  state  roast  him  alive.  The  sea 
and  the  fresh  water  alike  make  no  effort  to  uphold  him  if  his  vessel  founders; 
he  casts  up  his  arms  in  vain,  they  come  to  their  level  over  his  head,  filhng 
the  spot  his  body  occupied.  If  he  falls  from  a  cliff  the  air  parts;  the  earth 
beneath  dashes  him  to  pieces. 

—  Richard  Jefferies,  The  Story  of  My  Heart. 

As  the  flute  is  heard  farther  than  the  cart,  see  how  surely  a  beautiful  form 
strikes  the  fancy  of  men,  and  is  copied  and  reproduced  without  end.  How 
many  copies  are  there  of  the  Belvedere  Apollo,  the  Venus,  the  Psyche,  the 
Warwick  Vase,  the  Parthenon,  and  the  Temple  of  Vesta?  These  are  objects 
of  tenderness  to  all.  In  our  cities,  an  ugly  building  is  soon  removed,  and  is 
never  repeated,  but  any  beautiful  building  is  copied  and  improved  upon, 
so  that  all  masons  and  carpenters  work  to  repair  and  preserve  the  agreeable 
forms,  whilst  the  ugly  ones  die  out. 

—  Emerson,  Conduct  of  Life. 

I  should  Uke  to  fill  several  volumes  with  accounts  of  various  university 
snobs;  so  fond  are  my  reminiscences  of  them,  and  so  numerous  are  they.  I 
should  like  to  speak,  above  aU,  of  the  wives  and  daughters  of  some  of  the 
professor-snobs;  their  amusements,  habits,  jealousies,  their  innocent  artifices 
to  entrap  young  men ;  their  picnics,  concerts,  and  evening-parties.  I  wonder 
what  has  become  of  Emily  Blades,  daughter  of  Blades,  the  professor  of  the 
Mandingo  language?  I  remember  her  shoulders  to  this  day,  as  she  sat  in 
the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  about  seventy  young  gentlemen,  from  Corpus  and 
Catherine  Hall,  entertaining  them  with  ogles  and  French  songs  on  the 
gviitar.  Are  you  married,  fair  Emily  of  the  shoulders?  What  beautiful 
ringlets  those  were  that  used  to  dribble  over  them! —  what  a  waist! —  what 
a  killing  sea-green  shot-silk  gown! —  what  a  cameo,  the  size  of  a  muffin! 
There  were  thirty-six  young  men  of  the  university  in  love  at  one  time  with 
Emily  Blades;  and  no  words  are  sufficient  to  describe  the  pity,  the  sorrow, 


88  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  deep,  deep  commiseration  —  the  rage,  fury,  and  uncharitableness, 
in  other  words  —  with  which  the  IVIiss  Trumps  (daughter  of  Trumps,  the 
professor  of  phlebotomy)  regarded  her,  because  she  didn't  squint,  and  because 
she  wasn't  marked  with  the  small-pox. 

—  Thackeray,  The  Book  of  Snobs. 

jj/  2.  Development  by  Comparison  and  Contrast 

Of  the  three  buildings  the  Tower  is  the  oldest  and  in  other  ways  the  most 
striking.  It  shares  with  the  castles  of  Windsor,  Avignon,  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio,  and  the  Kremlin  the  rare  peculiarity  of  being  a  mediaeval  fortress 
of  the  first  class  which  has  not  become  a  ruin  or  a  fragment.  But  the  Tower 
in  its  central  part  is  far  older  than  they  all.  It  is  neither  a  ruin  nor  a  museum 
nor  a  site.  It  is  used  in  the  nineteenth  century  as  it  was  in  the  eleventh  — 
the  central  fortress  of  the  kingdom  which  the  Normans  founded;  it  still 
guards  the  crown  of  Alfred,  the  Confessor,  the  Conqueror;  it  is  still  a  martial 
camp,  and  the  guard  to  this  day  is  changed  day  and  night  in  the  name  of  the 
descendant  of  King  Will  elm.  Its  towers  recall  more  episodes  in  the  history 
and  the  poetry  of  our  nation  than  perhaps  any  other  building  in  the  world 
regarding  those  of  any  other  nation.  It  is  the  one  civil  building  which  has 
stood  for  eight  centuries  serving  the  same  dynasty  and  the  same  national 
life  in  unbroken  continuity  of  service;  and  in  those  eight  centuries  it  has 
kno^vn  no  period  of  degradation  or  decay,  but  rather  has  witnessed  a  splendid 
series  of  great  and  memorable  deeds. 

—  Frederic  Harrison,  Historic  London. 

What  are  the  great  faults  of  conversation?  Want  of  ideas,  want  of  words, 
want  of  manners,  are  the  principal  ones,  I  suppose  you  think.  I  don't 
doubt  it,  but  I  will  tell  you  what  I  have  found  spoil  more  good  talks  than 
anything  else;  long  arguments  on  special  points  between  people  who  differ 
on  the  fundamentid  principles  on  which  these  points  depend.  No  men  can 
have  satisfactor>'  reflations  with  each  other  until  they  have  agreed  on  certain 
ultimata  of  belief  not  to  be  disturbed  in  ordinary  conversation,  and  unless 
they  have  sense  enough  to  trace  the  secondary  questions  depending  upon 
these  ultimate  beliefs  to  their  source.  In  short,  just  as  a  written  constitution 
is  essential  to  the  best  social  order,  so  a  code  of  finalities  is  a  necessary  con- 
dition of  profitable  talk  between  two  persons.  Talking  is  like  playing  on 
the  han>;  there  is  as  much  in  laying  the  hand  on  the  strings  to  stop  a  vibration 
as  in  twanging  them  to  bring  out  their  music. 

■ — Holmes,  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table, 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  89 

^'2>'  Development  by  Causes 

The  fortunes  of  Essex  had  now  reached  their  height,  and  began  to  decline. 
He  possessed  indeed  all  the  qualities  which  raise  men  to  greatness  rapidly. 
But  he  had  neither  the  virtues  nor  the  vices  which  enable  men  to  retain 
greatness  long.  His  frankness,  his  keen  sensibility  to  insult  and  injustice, 
were  by  no  means  agreeable  to  a  sovereign  naturally  impatient  of  opposition, 
and  accustomed,  during  forty  years,  to  the  most  extravagant  flattery  and  the 
most  abject  submission.  The  daring  and  contemptuous  manner  in  which 
he  bade  defiance  to  his  enemies  excited  their  deadly  hatred.  His  administra- 
tion in  Ireland  was  unfortunate,  and  in  many  respects  highly  blamable. 
Though  his  brilliant  courage  and  his  impetuous  activity  fitted  him  admirably 
for  such  enterprises  as  that  of  Cadiz,  he  did  not  possess  the  caution,  patience, 
and  resolution  necessary  for  the  conduct  of  a  protracted  war,  in  which  difiB- 
culties  were  to  be  gradually  surmounted,  in  which  much  discomfort  was  to 
be  endured,  and  in  which  few  splendid  exploits  could  be  achieved.  For  the 
civil  duties  of  his  high  place  he  was  still  less  qualified.  Though  eloquent 
and  accomplished,  he  was  in  no  sense  a  statesman.  The  multitude  indeed 
still  continued  to  regard  even  his  faults  with  fondness.  But  the  Court  had 
ceased  to  give  him  credit,  even  for  the  merit  which  he  reaUy  possessed.  The 
person  on  whom,  during  the  decline  of  his  influence,  he  chiefly  depended,  to 
whom  he  confided  his  perplexities,  whose  advice  he  solicited,  whose  interces- 
sion he  employed,  was  his  friend  Bacon.  The  lamentable  truth  must  be 
told.  This  friend,  so  loved,  so  tnisted,  bore  a  principal  part  in  ruining  the 
Earl's  fortunes,  in  shedding  his  blood,  and  in  blackening  his  memory. 

— Macaulay,  Essay  on  Bacon. 

After  all,  the  most  serious  question  of  discipline  in  the  college  of  to-day 
is  how  to  get  from  our  students  intellectual  work.  Want  of  responsibility 
to  work  rather  than  radical  dishonesty  is  at  the  root  of  such  dishonest  acts 
as  I  have  described.  In  the  attitude  toward  work  a  considerable  number 
of  students  are  still  boys  and  not  men.  It  is  only  in  athletics  that  some  of 
them  recognize  the  flimsiness  of  excuses,  the  necessity  of  hard  training,  the 
responsibiUty  of  duty  day  by  day,  the  meanness  of  the  "quitter."  As  to 
excuses,  I  have  heard  a  coUege  officer  whose  business  it  is  to  pass  on  them 
described  as  "a  man  you  lie  to  and  get  mad  with  for  not  believing  you;" 
and  this  definition  shows  how  dexterously  the  unthinking  student  uses  in 
college  morals  a  double  standard,  and  how  flexible  he  is  in  transforming 
himself  from  man  to  boy  and  from  boy  to  man,  according  to  his  own  immedi- 
ate advantage.  The  most  searching  temptation  of  a  freshman  when  he  first 
finds  himself  turned  loose  in  a  imiversity  is  the  temptation  to  idleness. 


90  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Some  freshmen  act  as  if  in  entering  college  they  had  scaled  the  mountain  of 
life  and  had  nothing  to  do  but  to  picnic  on  the  summit.  Their  natural  desire 
to  get  into  tliis  or  that  club,  their  knowledge  that  they  cannot  get  into  it 
without  wide  acquaintance,  and  their  belief  that  wide  acquaintance  involves 
free  use  of  social  hours  at  all  times  of  the  day,  lead  them  to  loafing.  Thus 
far  the  influence  of  the  club  is  bad,  though  later  a  clubman  may  be  upheld 
in  his  work  and  driven  to  his  work  by  those  members  of  the  club  who  see  his 
danger.  The  radical  difficulty  about  work  among  students  comes,  in  part, 
from  the  prevalent  theory  of  education  through  which  boys  and  young 
men  have  things  done  for  them,  sometimes  for  their  amusement,  sometimes 
for  their  information,  instead  of  being  taught  to  do  things  for  themselves. 
I  lately  talked  with  an  intelligent  and  delightful  sophomore  who  had  excused 
himself  for  absence  on  the  ground  that  he  had  gone  with  a  sick  companion 
to  a  "phizician."  I  cheerfully  accepted  his  excuse,  but  told  him  that  I  did 
not  like  to  see  him  spell  physician  in  that  way.  "I  know,"  he  replied,  "I 
didn't  know  how  to  spell  that  word;  mamma  wasn't  at  home;  and  I  didn't 
know."  Yet  this  boy  came  from  a  school  recognized  as  among  the  best, 
and  from  educated  parents;  and  even  in  Boston,  mamma,  when  she  goes  out, 
leaves  the  dictionary  behind  her.  Possibly  he  was  like  the  other  student 
who  said,  "What's  the  use  of  looking  in  the  dictionary  for  a  word  if  you 
don't  know  the  letter  it  begins  with?" 

—  LeBaron  R,  Briggs,  Routine  and  Ideals. 

4.  Development  by  Results 

The  greatest  change  of  the  last  hundred  years  is,  no  doubt,  that  which 
the  plow  has  wrought  in  the  aspect  of  the  downs.  There  is  a  certain  pleasure 
to  the  eye  in  the  wide  fields  of  golden  com,  especially  of  wheat,  in  July  and 
August;  but  a  plowed  down  is  a  down  made  ugly,  and  it  strikes  one  as  a 
mistake  even  from  the  purely  economic  point  of  view  that  this  old,  rich  turf, 
the  slow  product  of  centuries,  should  he  ruined  forever  as  sheep-pasture, 
when  so  great  an  extent  of  uncultivated  land  exists  elsewhere,  especially 
the  heavy  clays  of  the  midlands,  better  suited  for  com.  The  effect  of  break- 
ing up  the  turf  of  the  high  downs  is  often  disastrous;  the  thin  soil,  which  was 
preserved  by  the  close,  hard  turf,  is  blown  or  washed  away,  and  the  soil 
becomes  poorer  year  by  year  in  spite  of  dressing,  until  it  is  hardly  worth 
cultivating.  Clover  may  be  grown  on  it,  but  it  continues  to  deteriorate; 
or  the  tenant  or  landlord  may  turn  it  into  a  rabbit-warren,  the  most  faUil 
policy  of  all.  IIow  hideous  they  are  —  those  great  stretches  of  down-land 
enclosed  in  l)ig  wire  fences  or  ral)l)it-netting,  with  little  but  wiry  weeds,  moss, 
and  lichen  growing  on  them,  tlie  earth  dug  up  everywhere  by  the  disorderly 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  91 

little  beastsi      For  a  while  there  is  a  profit  —  "It  will  serve  my  time,"  the 
owner  says  —  but  the  end  is  utter  barrenness. 

—  W.  H.  Hudson,  The  Shepherd's  Life. 

There  is  nothing  so  hnportant  as  the  choice  of  friendship;  for  it  both  reflects 
character  and  affects  it.  A  man  is  known  by  the  company  he  keeps.  This 
is  an  infallible  test;  for  his  thoughts  and  desires  and  ambitions  and  loves  are 
revealed  here.  He  gravitates  naturally  to  his  congenial  sphere.  And  it 
affects  character;  for  it  is  the  atmosphere  he  breathes.  It  enters  his  blood 
and  makes  the  circuit  of  his  veins.  "AH  Ufe  assimilates  to  what  it  loves." 
A  man  is  moulded  into  hkeness  of  the  lives  that  come  nearest  him.  It  is  at 
the  point  of  the  emotions  that  he  is  most  impressionable.  The  material 
surroundings,  the  outside  lot  of  a  man  affects  him,  but  after  all,  that  is 
material  and  outside;  for  the  higher  functions  of  life  may  be  served  in  almost 
any  external  circumstances.  But  the  environment  of  other  lives,  the  com- 
munion of  other  souls,  are  far  more  potent  facts.  The  nearer  people  are  to 
each  other,  and  the  less  disguise  there  is  in  their  relationship,  the  more 
invariably  will  the  law  of  spiritual  environment  act. 

—  Hugh  Black,  Friendship. 


.       5.  Development  by  Reasons 

Now,  to  be  properly  enjoyed,  a  walking  tour  should  be  gone  upon  alone. 
If  you  go  in  a  company,  or  even  in  pairs,  it  is  no  longer  a  walking  tour  in 
anything  but  name;  it  is  something  else  and  more  in  the  nature  of  a  picnic. 
A  walking  tour  should  be  gone  upon  alone,  because  freedom  is  of  the  essence; 
because  you  should  be  able  to  stop  and  go  on,  and  follow  this  way  or  that, 
as  the  freak  takes  you;  and  because  you  must  have  your  own  pace,  and 
neither  trot  alongside  a  champion  walker,  nor  mince  in  time  with  a  girl. 
And  then  you  must  be  open  to  all  impressions  and  let  your  thoughts  take 
color  from  what  you  see.  You  should  be  as  a  pipe  for  any  wind  to  play  upon. 
'T  cannot  see  the  wit,"  says  Hazlitt,  "of  walking  and  talking  at  the  same 
time.  When  I  am  in  the  country  I  wish  to  vegetate  like  the  country," — 
which  is  the  gist  of  all  that  can  be  said  upon  the  matter.  There  should  be 
no  cackle  of  voices  at  your  elbow,  to  jar  on  the  meditative  silence  of  the 
morning.  And  so  long  as  a  man  is  reasoning  he  cannot  surrender  himself 
to  that  fine  intoxication  that  comes  of  much  motion  in  the  open  air,  that 
begins  in  a  sort  of  dazzle  and  sluggishness  of  the  brain,  and  ends  in  a  peace 
that  passes  comprehension. 

—  R.  L.  Stevenson,  Walking  Tours. 


92  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Almost  the  whole  of  the  bottom  of  this  central  plain  (which  extends  for 
many  hundred  miles  in  a  north  and  south  direction)  is  covered  by  a  fine 
mud,  which,  when  brought  to  the  surface,  dries  into  a  grayish-white  friable 
substance.  You  can  write  with  this  on  a  blackboard,  if  you  are  so  inclined; 
and  to  the  eye  it  is  quite  like  very  soft  grayish  chalk.  "  Examined  chemically, 
it  proves  to  be  composed  almost  wholly  of  carbonate  of  lime;  and  if  you  make 
a  section  of  it,  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  piece  of  chalk  was  made,  and 
view  it  with  the  microscope,  it  presents  innumerable  Globigerinae  embedded 
in  a  granular  matrix.  Thus  this  deep-sea  mud  is  substantially  chalk.  I 
say,  substantially,  because  there  are  a  good  many  minor  differences;  but  as 
these  have  no  bearing  on  the  question  immediately  before  us  —  which  is 
the  nature  of  the  Globigerinae  of  the  chalk, —  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak  of 
them. 

y^  —  Huxley,  On  a  Piece  of  Chalk. 

6.  Development  by  Inferences        

In  football,  tennis,  billiards,  leap-frog,  shooting,  fishing,  boxing,  wrestling, 
fencing,  chess,  whist,  hide-and-seek, —  the  fascinating  variety  of  "gives" 
and  "takes"  is  clear.  But  this  is  not  so  true  of  rowing,  bicycling,  sailing, 
swimming,  skating,  coasting,  and  track  athletics,  for  it  is  now  with  inanimate 
antagonists  that  we  engage.  Oar  and  water  hit  or  miss  each  other  as  we  row, 
but  it  is  not  a  very  vital  sort  of  conversation.  Ice  is  still  less  various  and 
responsive.  When  we  come  to  track  athletics,  we  must  confess  that  the 
running-track  and  the  ground  from  which  the  jumper  "takes  off"  as  he  rises, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  respond  at  all.  It  is  because  these  sports  are  lacking 
in  give-and-take  that  men  rarely  sprint  or  jump  merely  for  the  fun  of  it. 
Hence  competition  is  left  as  the  heart  and  soul  of  all  track  athletics  and  marks 
them  hereby  as  inferior  to  games  like  baseball  and  whist,  which  contain  a 
back-and-forth  element.  There  is  mighty  little  fun  in  a  mile  run  or  a 
hammer-throw  unless  you  win.  It  is  hard  work  and  soon  grows  monotonous. 
In  other  words,  it  is  not  the  best  sort  of  play. 

—  Richard  C.  Cabot,  What  Men  Live  By. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  facts  concerning  the  arts  of  all  kinds  is  that 
those  who  wish  to  give  their  lives  to  them  do  not  appear  where  the  appliances 
for  instruction  in  them  exist.  An  artistic  atmosphere  does  not  create  artists; 
a  literary  atmosphere  does  not  create  Uterators;  poets  and  painters  spring 
up  where  there  was  never  a  verse  made  or  a  picture  seen. 

This  suggests  that  God  is  no  more  idle  now  than  He  was  at  the  beginning, 
but  that  He  is  still  and  forever  shaping  the  human  chaos  into  the  instruments 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  93 

and  means  of  beauty.  It  may  also  suggest  to  that  scholar-pride,  that  vanity 
of  technique,  which  is  so  apt  to  vaunt  itself  in  the  teacher,  that  the  best  he 
can  do,  after  all,  is  to  let  the  pupil  teach  himself.  If  he  comes  with  divine 
authority  to  the  thing  he  attempts,  he  will  know  how  to  use  the  appliances, 
of  which  the  teacher  is  only  the  first. 

—  W.  D.  Howells,  Literature  and  Life. 

73.  Exercise  in  paragraph  development.  Choosing  a  topic 
sentence  from  the  following  list,  write  four  detached  paragraphs, 
each  beginning  with  the  topic  sentence:  the  first  developed  by 
illustration,  the  second  by  comparison  or  contrast,  the  third  by 
causes,  the  fourth  by  results.  The  four  paragraphs  should  be 
separated  by  spaces  or  dashes  in  order  to  indicate  that  they  are 
not  intended  as  a  connected  series,  but  as  four  different  ways  of 
developing  the  same  proposition. 

"^i.     College  students  are  more  democratic  than  grammar  school  or  high 
school  pupils. 

2.  Musical  appreciation  is  growing  in  this  community. 

3.  Moving  pictures  affect  ail  classes  of  society. 

4.  Our  traffic  laws  are  poorly  enforced. 

5.  Fruit  raising  under  ordinary  conditions  is  necessarily  more  or  less  of  a 

speculation. 

6.  Poor  people  are  often  the  most  generous  in  proportion  to  their  means. 

7.  Rentals  are  too  high  in  this  city. 

8.  Clever  advertising  influences  even  those  who  dislike  it. 

9.  College  students  read  too  Httle  biography. 

10.  Basketball  pays  better  than  football  in  a  small  coUege. 

11.  Foreign-speaking  immigrants  have  a  lower  standard  of  hving  than 

native  Americans. 

12.  Sunday  evening  church  attendance  is  declining. 

13.  Congress  wastes  a  great  deal  of  time. 

14.  Weekly  periodicals  are  governed  largely  by  their  advertising. 

15.  College  students  try  to  do  too  much  outside  their  studies. 

16.  Few  people  use  common  sense  about  the  food  they  eat. 

17.  Art  exhibitions  do  not  as  yet  appeal  to  the  general  public. 

18.  The  war  made  young  men  restless. 

19.  Carpenters  are  less  skillful  and  reliable  than  in  former  times. 

20.  Chemistry  trains  the  powers  of  observation. 


94 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


74.  Detached  single  paragraphs  are  used  in  editorial  writing, 
in  written  examinations,  and  in  other  ways.  Among  editorial 
writers,  whether  for  newspapers  and  periodicals  of  general  cir- 
culation or  for  college  publications,  the  rarest  accompUshment 
is  the  writing  of  short,  pithy  paragraphs,  each  on  a  distinct 
topic.  It  is  much  easier  to  write  half  a  column  than  to  write  a 
good  paragraph.  In  this  kind  of  writing,  whether  the  intent  be 
serious  or  humorous,  the  treatment  expository  or  argumentative, 
the  secret  of  success  lies  in  beginning  and  ending  with  a  pungent 
phrase,  and  in  eliminating  all  superfluous  words.  "Boil  it 
down"  is  a  motto  which  would  make  a  good  two-hundred- word 
paragraph  out  of  many  a  poor  theme  of  six  hundred.  But 
condensation  should  never  eliminate  the  illustrations  and  the 
little  turns  of  speech  that  give  life  to  language. 

This  caution  applies  especially  to  paragraphs  in  college  written 
examinations.  If  a  teacher  of  history  asks  when  slavery  was 
abolished  in  the  British  colonies,  or  who  succeeded  Oliver  Crom- 
well, the  answer  may  be  given  in  a  line  or  less.  But  if  he  asks 
for  a  discussion  of  the  influence  of  the  crusades  on  European 
civilization,  or  of  the  character  of  Cavour,  what  he  wants  is  not 
two  or  three  scrai)py  sentences,  but  a  well-developed,  carefully 
framed  paragraph.  Most  often  the  method  of  development  by 
examjiles  or  by  comparison  will  yield  satisfactory  material  for 
the  answer  to  such  questions.  A  general  projwsition  that  may 
be  affirmed  of  all  good  expository  paragraphs,  even  those  which 
stand  alone,  is  that  unsupported,  undeveloped  assertions  have 
no  place  in  them.  The  unfolding  of  that  which  is  implied,  the 
definition  and  specification  of  that  which  is  general  or  vague, 
lead  to  effectiveness. 

75.  Coherence  within  the  paragraph  requires  orderly 
arrangement.  There  is  usually  a  natural  order,  logical  or  chron- 
ological, governing  the  best  arrangement  of  the  sentences  in  a 
paragraph.  For  example,  if  the  subject  of  a  paragraph  has  to 
do  with  the  effects  of  the  war  upon  the  young  men  who  took  part 


GOOD   PARAGRAPHS  95 

in  it,  an  ineffective  order  would  be  to  begin  with  effects  of 
active  service  in  France,  to  go  back  to  effects  of  training-camp 
life,  then  to  jump  over  to  effects  of  conditions  at  the  time  of 
demobilization,  and  finally  to  return  to  the  effects  of  the  selective 
draft.  These  four  points  might  be  arranged  either  in  chrono- 
logical or  in  reverse  order,  but  they  should  not  be  shuffled  and 
dealt  out  at  random.  Or,  if  one  were  discussing  modern  stage 
lighting,  one  would  not  mix  up  sentences  dealing  with  the  direc- 
tion, the  intensity,  and  the  color  of  the  lights  employed.  In 
other  words,  the  same  principle  of  orderly  arrangement  within 
the  paragraph  prevails  whether  it  is,  or  is  not,  written  upon  the 
basis  of  a  fully  detailed  outline  such  as  those  discussed  in 
Chapters  II  and  IV. 

76.  Coherence  withm  the  paragraph  requires  suitable 
connective  words  and  phrases.  Somewhere  in  nearly  every 
sentence  in  a  good  paragraph  there  will  be  a  connective  element. 
^This  may  be  an  adjective  {this,  these,  such,  other,  another),  an 
adverb  or  conjunction  {further,  also,  moreover,  therefore,  conse- 
quently, nevertheless,  yet),  a  prepositional  phrase  {aside  from,  in 
addition  to,  by  reason  of),  an  adverbial  phrase  {on  the  other  hand, 
in  spite  of  these  difficulties),  or  a  clause  of  one  sort  or  another; 
the  purpose  being  in  every  case  to  link  sentence  to  sentence. 
Such  words  are  often  best  introduced  in  revising  the  rough  draft. 
At  every  sentence,  during  revision,  the  writer  may  well  pause  to 
inquire  what  is  the  connection  of  thought  with  the  preceding 
passage,  and  whether  that  connection  is  properly  expressed. 
In  the  following  illustrative  paragraphs  the  connective  expres- 
sions are  italicized  for  emphasis: 

However  original  ajid  iconoclastic  Shaw  may  be  in  respect  to  interpretative 
prefaces  and  artistically  cast  stage-directions,  in  the  matter  of  diamatic  con- 
struction and  technique  he  has  been  notably  rigorous,  rather  than  careless, 
in  his  attempt  at  realistic  representation.  In  minor  matters  of  punctuation, 
it  is  true,  he  has  freely  gratified  his  own  prefeiences  and  likings  —  using 
spaced  letters  for  emphasis,  omitting  commas  and  apostrophes  whenever  no 


^ 


96  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

doubt  as  to  the  sense  is  involved,  avoiding  quotation  marks  for  titles  and, 
indeed,  in  biblical  fashion,  dispensing  with  punctuation  on  every  possible 
occasion.  All  these  things  are  merely  matters  of  taste.  But  the  conventional 
technique  of  the  drama,  the  customs,  tricks  and  de\'ices  of  stage-draft,  he 
ordinarily  accepts  without  question.  InWidowers'  Houses  in  its  first  form, 
he  made  the  explicit  division  into  scenes;  since  that  time,  he  has  made  each 
of  his  plays,  as  far  as  scenes  go,  a  continuous  whole,  unbroken  save  only 
by  division  into  acts,  and  by  a  succession  of  asterisks  where  a  lapse  of  time 
is  to  be  understood.  In  this  respect,  he  has  carefully  preserved  his  rule 
of  writing  down  nothing  that  might  remind  the  reader  of  an  actual  stage  or 
a  theatric  representation.     _Archibald  Henderson, George  Bernard  Shaw. 

One  cannot  refuse  to  admire  the  artist  who  draws  these  pictures.  But 
we  say  to  ourselves  that  his  ideas  show  the  influence  of  a  primitive  and 
obsolete  order  of  things,  when  the  warrior  caste  and  the  priestly  caste  were 
alone  in  honor,  and  the  humble  work  of  the  world  was  done  by  slaves.  We 
have  now  changed  all  that;  the  modern  majority  consists  in  work,  as  Emerson 
declares;  and  in  work,  we  may  add,  principally  of  such  plain  and  dusty  kind 
as  the  work  of  cultivators  of  the  ground,  handicraftsmen,  men  of  trade  and 
business,  men  of  the  working  professions.  Above  all  is  this  true  in  a  great 
industrious  community  such  as  that  of  the  United  States. 

—  Matthew  Arnold,  Literature  and  Science. 

There  is  another  evidence  of  generosity  in  a  gentleman  by  which  you  may 
test  any  person  about  whom  you  doubt  whether  he  be  a  gentleman  or  not. 
A  real  gentleman  will  always  be  considerate  toward  those  whom  he  employs, 
toward  those  who  might  be  considered  his  inferiors,  or  who  are  in  any  way 
in  his  power.  The  real  gentleman  thinks  about  their  comforts,  pleasures, 
and  reasonable  expectations,  and  docs  nothing  to  make  their  condition  harder 
or  less  enjoyable.  There  is  no  surer  test  of  a  gentleman  than  that,  except 
that  a  gentleman  will  never  do  anything  that  will  hurt  a  woman  or  child  or 
any  human  creature  weaker  than  himself,  even  if  he  does  not  yet  know  the 
woman  or  child  that  might  be  hurt.  This  is  a  test  which  is  infallible.  I 
think  that  you  will  find  that  this  rule  of  conduct  will  go  far  toward  the  pre- 
servation of  personal  honor  and  personal  purity. 

■ — C.  W.  Eliot,  The  Training  for  an  EJJcctive  Life. 

11 .  Emphasis  in  the  paragraph  depends  largely  on  arrange- 
ment. An  arrangement  that  promotes  merely  unity  and  coher- 
ence is  not  always  emphatic.  Remembering  that  the  beginning 
and  the  end  of  aparagraph,  as  well  as  of  a  sentence,  are  the  points 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  97 

of  greatest  emphasis,  we  should  make  sure  to  begin  well  and  to 
end  well.  Frequently  a  short,  pithy  topic  sentence  may  stand 
at  the  very  beginning  of  the  paragraph  in  order  to  achieve  initial 
emphasis;  notwithstanding  that  this  arrangement  postpones  the 
transitional  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence,  or  even  sacrifices  it 
entirely.  Compare  the  beginnings  of  the  three  following  con- 
nected paragraphs: 

The  sun  of  Louis  XIV  had  reached  its  zenith.  From  a  morning  of  unex- 
ampled brilliancy  it  had  mounted  to  the  glare  of  a  cloudless  noon;  but  the 
hour  of  its  decline  was  near.  The  mortal  enemy  of  France  was  on  the  throne 
of  England,  turning  against  her  from  that  new  point  of  vantage  all  the 
energies  of  his  unconquerable  genius.  An  invalid  built  the  Bourbon  mon- 
archy, and  another  invalid  battered  and  defaced  the  imposing  structure: 
two  potent  and  daring  spirits  in  two  frail  bodies,  Richelieu  and  Wilham  of 
Orange. 

Versailles  gave  no  sign  of  waning  glories.  On  three  evenings  of  the 
week,  it  was  the  pleasure  of  the  king  that  the  whole  court  should  assemble 
in  the  vast  suite  of  apartments  now  known  as  the  Halls  of  Abundance,  of 
Venus,  of  Diana,  of  ]\Iars,  of  jNIercury,  and  of  Apollo.  The  magnificence  of 
their  decorations,  pictures  of  the  great  Italian  masters,  sculptures,  frescoes, 
mosaics,  tapestries,  vases  and  statues  of  silver  and  gold;  the  vista  of  light 
and  splendor  that  opened  through  the  wide  portals;  the  courtly  throngs, 
feasting,  dancing,  gaming,  prom.enading,  conversing,  formed  a  scene  which 
no  palace  of  Europe  could  rival  or  approach.  Here  were  all  the  great  historic 
names  of  France,  princes,  warriors,  statesmen,  and  all  that  was  highest  in 
rank  and  place;  the  flower,  in  short,  of  that  brilliant  society,  so  dazzling, 
captivating,  and  illusory.  In  former  years,  the  king  was  usually  present, 
affable  and  gracious,  mingling  with  his  courtiers  and  sharing  their  amiuse- 
ments;  but  he  had  grown  graver  of  late,  and  was  more  often  in  his  cabinet, 
laboring  with  his  ministers  on  the  task  of  administration,  which  his  extrava- 
gance and  ambition  made  every  day  more  burdensome. 

There  was  one  comer  of  the  world  where  his  emblem,  the  sun,  would  not 
shine  on  him.  He  had  done  his  best  for  Canada,  and  had  got  nothing  for 
his  pains  but  news  of  mishaps  and  troubles.  He  was  growing  tired  of  the 
colony  which  he  had  nursed  with  paternal  fondness,  and  he  was  more  than 
half  angry  with  it  because  it  did  not  prosper.  Denonville's  letters  had 
grown  worse  and  worse;  and,  though  he  had  not  heard  as  yet  of  the  last 
great  calamity,  he  was  sated  with  ill  tidings  already. 

—  Francis  Parkman,  Count  Frontcnac  and  New  Franc?-  xinder  Louis  XIV. 


98  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

The  first  two  of  these  paragraphs  make  use  of  tlie  short, 
forceful  topic  sentence.  In  the  first  paragraph  the  transitional 
element  is  tlie  first  phrase  of  the  second  sentence;  in  the  second 
paragraph  there  is  no  expressed  transition  connecting  it  with  the 
first.  In  both  cases  the  initial  emphasis  gains  by  the  brevity  and 
the  slight  abruptness  of  the  opening  sentence.  The  third  para- 
graph begins  with  a  transitional  sentence  carrying  on  the 
metaphor  of  the  first  paragraph,  and  states  its  theme  in  the 
second  sentence. 

Terminal  emphasis  of  the  paragraph  is  sometimes  attained  by 
a  concluding  sentence  restating  in  a  striking  way  the  theme  as 
announced  at  the  beginning. 

Thackeray  has  become  classical;  but  Dickens  has  done  more;  he  has 
remained  modern.  There  was  a  painful  moment  (somewhere  about  the 
eighties)  when  we  watched  anxiously  to  see  whether  Dickens  was  fading 
from  the  modem  world.  We  have  watched  a  Httle  longer,  and  with  great 
relief  we  begin  to  reahze  that  it  is  the  modern  woild  that  is  fading.  All  that 
universe  of  ranks  and  respectabihties  in  comparison  \\ith  which  Dickens  was 
called  a  caricaturist,  all  that  Victorian  universe  in  which  he  seemed  vulgar 
—  all  that  is  itself  breaking  up  like  a  cloudland.  And  only  the  caricatures 
of  Dickens  remain  like  things  carved  in  stone. 

—  G.  K.  Chesterton,  Criticisms  and  Appreciations  of  Dickens. 

Sometimes  the  concluding  sentence  of  a  pargraph  contributes 
marked  emphasis  at  the  close  because  it  is  also  really  the  topic 
sentence.  In  the  following  paragraph,  illustrations  given  in  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  sentences  of  the  principle  announced  in 
the  second  and  repeated  in  the  sixth  are  rounded  out  into  an 
impressive  climax  in  the  bold  phrase  "Incipient  life"  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  and  last  sentence: 

I  take  common  salt  as  an  illustration  because  it  is  so  familiar  to  us  all; 
but  any  other  crystalline  substance  would  answer  my  purpose  equally  well. 
Everywhere,  in  fact,  throughout  morganic  nature,  we  have  this  formative 
power,  as  Fichte  would  call  it  —  this  structural  energy  ready  to  come  into 
play  and  build  the  ultimate  particles  of  matter  into  definite  shapes.  The 
ice  of  our  winters  and  of  our  polar  regions  is  its  handiwork,  and  so  equally 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  99 

are  the  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica  of  our  rocks.  Our  chalk-beds  are  for  the 
most  part  composed  of  minute  shells,  which  are  almost  the  product  of 
structural  energy;  but  behind  the  shell,  as  a  whole,  hes  a  more  remote  and 
subtle  formative  act.  These  shells  are  built  up  of  little  crystals  of  calc-spar, 
and  to  form  these  crystals  the  structural  force  had  to  deal  with  the  intangible 
molecules  of  carbonate  of  lime.  This  tendency  on  the  part  of  matter  to 
organize  itself,  to  grow  into  shape,  to  assume  definite  forms  in  obedience 
to  the  definite  action  of  force,  is,  as  I  have  said,  all-pervading.  It  is  in  the 
ground  on  which  you  tread,  in  the  water  you  drink,  in  the  air  you  breathe. 
Incipient  Ufe,  as  it  were,  manifests  itself  throughout  the  whole  of  what  we 
call  inorganic  nature. 

—  John  Tyndall,  Scope  and  Limit  of  Scientific  Materialism. 

In  yet  other  cases  a  question  makes  a  good  ending  for  a 
paragraph.  Questions,  indeed,  whether  answered  or  unan- 
swered, are  an  important  part  of  all  exposition,  and  when 
judiciously  used  contribute  much  to  emphasis.  Notice  the 
following  example: 

I  must  confess  that  I  believe  quite  firmly  that  an  inductive  knowledge  of 
a  great  number  of  things  in  the  future  is  becoming  a  human  possibility.  I 
beUeve  that  the  time  is  drawing  near  when  it  will  be  possible  to  suggest  a 
systematic  exploration  of  the  future.  And  you  must  not  judge  the  practic- 
ability of  this  enterprise  by  the  failures  of  the  past.  So  far  nothing  has  been 
attempted,  so  far  no  first-class  mind  has  ever  focussed  itself  upon  these  issues; 
but  suppose  the  laws  of  social  and  poUtical  development,  for  example,  were 
given  as  many  brains,  were  given  as  much  attention,  criticism,  and  discussion 
as  we  have  given  to  the  laws  of  chemical  combination  during  the  last  fifty 
years,  what  might  we  not  expect? 

■ —  H.  G.  Wells,  The  Discovery  of  the  Future. 

78.     Exercise   on   coherence   and    emphasis   in   paragraphs. 

(i)  Using  the  fourteen  specimen  paragraphs  quoted  in 
section  72  as  material,  underscore  in  pencil  every  word  or  phrase 
that  links  one  sentence  with  another  —  every  connective  element 
that  promotes  coherence. 

(2)  Go  through  the  same  fourteen  paragraphs  again  to  note 
the  beginning  and  the  end  of  each,  noting  in  the  margin  some  of 
the  means  by  which  initial  and  terminal  emphasis  is  produced; 


loo  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

for  example,  "short  sentence,"  "striking  phrase,"  etc.  If  any 
paragraph  appears  to  begin  or  to  end  weakly,  consider  whether 
any  transposition  of  phrases  would  improve  it. 

79.  Variety  of  sentence  form  helps  to  make  good  paragraphs. 
We  might  have  considered  the  subject  of  variety  in  the  chapter 
on  sentences,  but  this  is  a  more  appropriate  place,  for  it  is  not 
detached  sentences  but  sentences  in  combination  that  most  need 
variety.  In  the  writing  of  paragraphs,  and  still  more  in  the 
revision  of  them,  one  learns  flexibility  in  the  framing  of  sen- 
tences. Some  examination  of  the  three  t3^es  of  sentences,  as 
classified  according  to  the  internal  arrangement  of 'phrases  and 
clauses,  will  aid  in  the  understanding  of  this  subject  of  variety. 
These  three  types  are  loose,  periodic,  and  balanced  sentences. 

80.  Loose  sentences.  The  loose  sentence^  is  one  in  which 
a  period  may  be  inserted  at  one  or  more  points  before  the  end, 
leaving  a  grammatically  complete  sentence.  In  other  words,  it 
is  a  sentence  in  which  modifying  phrases  or  clauses  are  added 
after  the  principal  verb.  For  example,  any  conditional  sentence 
in  which  the  conditional  clause  follows  the  principal  clause,  any 
sentence  ending  with  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  predicate,  is 
loose.  The  loose  sentence  is  the  usual  and  normal  type  in 
informal  spoken  and  written  English;  it  is  also  widely  and 
properly  used  in  formal  speaking  and  writing,  whenever  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis  are  thereby  promoted.  The  only  sort 
of  loose  sentence  which  should  be  avoided  is  that  in  which  the 
modifying  phrases  or  clauses  added  after  the  principal  verb  are 
unim[)ortant,  leading  to  a  weak  instead  of  a  strong  conclusion. 
But  to  write  wholly  in  loose  sentences  is  to  write  monotonously. 
Desirable  variety  in  connected  discourse  suggests  frequent  alter- 
ation of  the  loose  to  the  opposite  (periodic)  t^qDC  of  sentence. 

I  The  name  loose  is  unfortunate,  for  it  seems  to  imply  a  disparagement  which  is 
not  intended.  The  word  merely  conveys  the  fact  that  the  sentence  is  put  together 
loosely,  that  is,  its  parts  are  so  joined  that  they  can  be  separated  wthout  difficulty. 
The  opposite  of  loose  is  periodic. 


GOOD   PARAGRAPHS  loi 

81.  Periodic  sentences.  The  periodic  sentence^  is  one  in 
which  the  meaning  is  not  really  or  even  apparently  complete 
until  the  end.  In  such  a  sentence  no  period  can  be  inserted  at 
any  point  before  the  end  without  destroying  its  grammatical 
completeness.  A  conditional  sentence,  for  example,  in  which 
the  dependent  clause  precedes  the  principal  clause,  is  likely  to 
be  periodic.  A  sentence  in  which  the  verb  comes  at  the  end  is 
periodic.  A  sentence  in  which  a  predicate  complement,  noun 
or  adjective,  comes  at  the  end  is  periodic.  Any  sentence  may 
be  arranged  in  the  periodic  form,  but  not  always  to  advantage. 
It  is  because  untrained  writers  tend  to  use  loose  sentences  to 
excess  that  special  attention  needs  to  be  directed  at  this  point 
to  the  opposite  type.  Notice  the  alternation  of  periodic  and 
loose  sentences  in  the  following  paragraph  from  Macaulay: 

A  history  in  which  every  particular  incident  may  be  true  may  on  the  whole 
be  false.  (Periodic).  The  circumstances  which  have  most  influence  on  the 
happiness  of  mankind,  the  changes  of  manners  and  morals,  the  transition  of 
communities  from  poverty  to  wealth,  from  knowledge  to  ignorance,  from 
ferocity  to  humanity  —  these  are,  for  the  most  part,  noiseless  revolutions. 
(Periodic).  Their  progress  is  rarely  indicated  by  what  historians  are  pleased 
to  call  important  events.  (Periodic).  They  are  not  achieved  by  armies,  or 
enacted  by  senates.  (Loose).  They  are  sanctioned  by  no  treaties,  and 
recorded  in  no  archives.  (Loose).  They  are  carried  on  in  every  school,  in 
every  church,  behind  ten  thousand  counters,  at  ten  thousand  firesides. 
(Loose).  The  upper  current  of  society  presents  no  certain  criterion  by  which 
we  can  judge  of  the  direction  in  which  the  under  current  flows.  (Periodic). 
We  read  of  defeats  and  victories.  (Loose).  But  we  know  that  nations  may 
be  miserable  amidst  victories  and  prosperous  amidst  defeats.  (Loose).  We 
read  of  the  fall  of  wise  ministers  and  of  the  rise  of  profligate  favorites. 
(Loose).  But  we  must  remember  how  small  a  proportion  the  good  or  evil 
effected  by  a  single  statesman  can  bear  to  the  good  or  evil  of  a  great  social 
system.     (Periodic).^ 

1  The  name  is  derived,  not  from  the  mark  of  punctuation  called  a  period ,  but  from  a 
special  rhetorical  meaning  of  the  word  pericd,  thus  defined  in  the  New  Internalional 
Dictionary:  "A  well-proportioned,  harmonious  sentence  of  several  clauses;  specifically, 
a  sentence  so  framed  as  to  come  to  grammatical  completeness  only  at  the  end." 

2  Several  of  the  loose  sentences  are  also  balanced;  (see  section  82.) 


I02  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Compare  this  with  an  extract  from  Theodore  Roosevelt's  The 
Strenuous  Life: 

We  of  this  generation  do  not  have  to  face  a  task  such  as  that  our  fathers 
faced,  but  we  have  our  tasks,  and  woe  to  us  if  we  fail  to  perform  them! 
(Loose).  We  cannot,  if  we  would,  play  the  part  of  China,  and  be  content 
to  rot  by  inches  in  ignoble  ease  within  oui  borders,  taking  no  interest  in  what 
goes  on  beyond  them,  sunk  in  a  scrambling  commercialism;  heedless  of  the 
higher  life,  the  life  of  aspiration,  of  toil  and  risk,  busying  ourselves  only  with 
the  wants  of  our  bodies  for  the  day,  until  suddenly  we  should  find,  beyond  a 
shadow  of  question,  what  China  has  already  found,  that  in  this  world  the 
nation  that  has  trained  itself  to  a  career  of  unwarlike  and  isolated  ease  is 
bound,  in  the  end,  to  go  down  before  other  nations  which  have  not  lost  the 
manly  and  adventurous  qualities.  (Loose).  If  we  are  to  be  a  really 
great  people,  we  must  strive  in  good  faith  to  play  a  great  part  in  the  world. 
(Periodic).  We  cannot  avoid  meeting  great  issues.  (Periodic).  All  that 
we  can  determine  for  ourselves  is  whether  we  shall  meet  them  well  or  ill. 
(Periodic). 

All  these  are  good  sentences;  the  loose  as  good  as  the  periodic. 
Such  a  sentence  as  the  second  in  the  passage  from  Roosevelt, 
with  its  115  words,  instead  of  sacrificing  anything  by  piling 
phrase  upon  phrase  after  the  main  clause,  gains  a  powerful 
cumulative  effect  from  this  very  method.  But  notice  also  that 
in  the  shorter  sentences  of  both  passages  most  of  the  force  is  due 
to  the  periodic  form.  Test  this  by  turning  some  of  them  into 
loose  sentences: 

Original  periodic  form:  The  upper  current  of  society  presents  no  certain 
criterion  by  which  we  can  judge  of  the  direction  in  which  the  under  current 
flows. 

Weaker  form:  The  direction  in  which  the  under  current  of  society  flows 
can  be  judged  by  no  certain  criterion  presented  by  the  upper  current. 

Original  periodic  form:  All  that  we  can  determine  for  ouisclves  is  whether 
we  shall  meet  them  well  or  ill. 

Weaker  form:  Whether  we  shall  meet  them  well  or  ill  is  all  that  we  can 
determine  for  ourselves. 

Yet  any  extensive  study  of  sentence  form  in  good  prose  will 
show  that  it  is  often  a  matter  of  indifference  which  form  should 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  103 

be  employed,  so  far  as  the  individual  sentence  is  concerned. 
Variety  in  the  paragraph  is  often  the  sole  determining  factor. 
Roughly  speaking,  almost  any  expository  paragraph  of  con- 
siderable length  will  be  the  better  for  at  least  one  periodic  sen- 
tence. 

82.  Balanced  sentences.  The  balanced  sentence  is  of  a  more 
artificial  and  deUberate  sort;  less  common  in  modern  writing 
than  the  periodic,  and  monotonous  when  carried  to  excess.  It 
is  a  sentence  in  which  a  symmetrical  pattern  of  two  or  more 
members  is  carried  out  in  parallel  phrases  or  clauses  of  similar 
grammatical  form.  The  following  paragraph  from  Newman  is  a 
fine  example  of  balanced  sentences  in  the  hands  of  a  master: 

Pride,  under  such  training,  instead  of  running  to  waste  in  the  education 
of  the  mind,  is  turned  to  account;  it  gets  a  new  name;  it  is  called  self-respect; 
and  ceases  to  be  the  disagreeable,  uncompanionable  quality  which  it  is  in 
itself.  Though  it  be  the  motive  principle  of  the  soul,  it  seldom  comes  to 
view;  and  when  it  shows  itself,  then  delicacy  and  gentleness  are  its  attire, 
and  good  sense  and  sense  of  honor  direct  its  motions.  It  is  no  longer  a  rest- 
less agent,  without  defmite  aim ;  it  has  a  large  field  of  exertion  assigned  to  it, 
and  it  subserves  those  social  interests  which  it  would  naturally  trouble.  It 
is  directed  into  the  channel  of  mdustry,  frugahty,  honesty,  and  obedience; 
and  it  becomes  the  very  staple  of  the  religion  and  morality  held  in  honoi  in 
a  day  like  our  own.  It  becomes  the  safeguard  of  chastity,  the  guarantee  of 
veracity,  in  high  and  low;  it  is  the  very  household  god  of  society,  as  at  present 
constituted,  inspiring  neatness  and  decency  in  the  servant  girl,  propriety  of 
carriage  and  refined  manners  in  her  mistress,  uprightness,  manhness,  and 
generosity  in  the  head  of  the  family.  It  diffuses  a  light  over  town  and 
country;  it  covers  the  soil  with  handsome  edifices  and  smiling  gardens, 
it  tills  the  field,  it  stocks  and  embellishes  the  shop.  It  is  the  stimulat- 
ing principle  of  providence  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  free  expenditure  on  the 
other;  of  an  honorable  ambition,  and  of  elegant  enjoyment.  It  breathes 
upon  the  face  of  the  community,  and  the  hollow  sepulchre  is  forthwith 
beautiful  to  look  upon. 

A  common  and  indispensable  use  of  the  balanced  sentence  is 
to  combine  into  a  compact  series  of  noun-clauses  beginning  with 
that,   or   whether,   or   some   other   subordinating   conjunction, 


I04  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

material  which  otherwise  would  require  much  greater  space. 
Notice  the  following  examples: 

We  can  only  remind  ourselves  that  he  [Bacon]  perceived,  with  all  the 
shrewd  certainty  which  pervades  his  essays,  the  cardinal  errors  of  the  old 
scholastic  learning;  that  he  pointed  out,  with  the  same  certainty,  how  sound 
and  permanent  knowledge  must  rest  upon  an  impregnable  basis  of  ascer- 
tained fact;  and  that  he  never  quite  understood  how  such  a  basis  could  be 
discovered,  or  secured,  onh-  by  the  patient  labors  of  more  generations  than 
have  yet  elapsed  since  he  caught  his  death-chill  stuffing  a  fowl  with  snow. 

—  Barrett  Wendell,  Temper  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  in  English  Literature. 

It  made  all  the  difference,  in  asserting  any  principle  of  war,  whether  one 
assumed  that  a  discharge  of  artillery  would  merely  knead  down  a  certain 
quantity  of  red  clay  into  a  level  line,  as  in  a  brick  field;  or  whether,  out  of 
every  separately  Christian-named  portion  of  the  ruinous  heap,  there  went 
out,  into  the  smoke  and  dead-fallen  air  of  battle,  some  astonished  condition 
of  soul,  unwillingly  released.  It  made  all  the  diffcience,  in  speaking  of  the 
possible  range  of  commerce,  whether  one  assumed  that  all  bargains  related 
only  to  visible  property  —  or  whether  property,  for  the  present  invisible, 
but  nevertheless  real,  was  elsewhere  purchasable  on  other  terms.  It  made 
all  the  difference,  in  addressmg  a  body  of  men  subject  to  considerable  hard- 
ship, and  having  to  find  some  way  out  of  it  —  whether  one  could  confidenth 
say  to  them,  "M3'  friends, —  you  have  only  to  die,  and  all  will  be  right;" 
or  whether  one  had  any  secret  misgiving  that  such  advice  was  more  blessed 
to  him  that  gave,  than  to  him  that  took  it. 

—  Ruskin,  Tlie  Crown  of  Wild  Olive. 

/  A  balanced  sentence  in  plain  exposition  is  chiefly  useful  for 
/  emphasizing  contrasts,  and  for  condensing  a  series  of  parallel 
statements  into  clear  and  compact  form.  Involving  as  it  does  a 
certain  premeditation  and  symmetry  of  expression,  it  is  not 
likely  to  find  place  in  the  first  draft  of  compostions  by  unprac- 
ticed  writers.  But  in  revising  a  paragraph  containing  either  an 
imperfectly  focussed  antithesis,  or  a  jerky  series  of  short,  parallel 
sentences,  recourse  may  well  be  had  to  this  principle  of  balance 
in  form,  matching  balance  in  ideas. 

83.  Exercise  in  variety  of  sentence  form.  In  the  fourteen 
specimen  paragraphs  quoted  in  section  72,  mark  in  the  text 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  105 

(with  P  or  B)  each  periodic  and  each  balanced  sentence.  Choose 
one  loose  sentence  from  each  of  these  paragraphs  and  turn  it 
into  a  periodic  sentence,  writing  the  two  forms  in  parallel  col- 
umns. Try  to  improve  on  the  original,  by  changing  not  the 
phraseology  but  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence.  Reading 
aloud  of  the  two  versions  will  often  demonstrate  that  the  rhythm 
or  cadence  of  the  author's  loose  sentence  is  superior  to  that  of 
any  periodic  substitute.  Note  that  variety  of  sentence  form 
is  much  more  important  to  the  ear  than  to  the  eye. 

84.  Final  exercise  in  paragraph  development.  Choosing  as 
a  starting-point  one  of  the  following  sentences,  or  another 
equally  specific,  write  a  theme  of  three  connected  paragraphs, 
each  containing  at  least  six  sentences.  Make  your  own  title. 
Each  paragraph  should  have  a  distinct  topic  sentence  of  your 
own  making  (the  sentence  chosen  from  the  list  is  really  a  topic 
sentence  for  the  whole  theme,  not  for  any  one  paragraph). 
Development  by  illustration,  by  comparison  or  contrast,  and 
by  causes  or  results  will  probably  be  the  most  effective,  but 
other  methods  may  be  employed.  Before  copying  this  theme 
revise  it  thoroughly  with  reference  to  emphasis,  coherence,  and 
variety.  The  exercise  is  a  test  of  all  the  work  of  the  past  few 
weeks,  deahng  with  the  structure  of  the  sentence  and  of  the 
paragraph.  Enough  time  should  be  spent  oif  it  to  insure  that 
it  will  represent  the  best  writing  of  which  you  are  capable. 

Subjects  for  Test  Theme  on  Paragr.\ph  Development 

1.  Non-partisan  municipal  campaigns  are  seldom  successful. 

2.  It  takes  more  than  buildings  and  money  to  make  a  college. 

3.  Self-respect  is  a  safer  basis  for  morality  than  an  inherited  or  traditional 
code. 

4.  Unearned  luxury  is  bad  for  young  people. 

5.  Contemporary  poetry,  even  if  overestimated,  is  well  worthy  of  study. 

6.  A  scientific  education  may  be  made  as  liberal  as  the  old  classical 
curriculum. 

7.  There  are  too  many  books  pulilished. 


io6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

8.  Mountains  are  at  once  more  stimulating  and  more  restful  than  the 
sea. 

9.  The  prevailing  reticence  in  regard  to  personal  religion  and  the  deeper 
things  of  life  is  not  due  to  indifference. 

10.  Our  generation  wastes  most  of  the  time  saved  by  machinery. 

11.  Votes  for  women  have  not  purified  poUtics. 

12.  Americans  have  still  a  childish  appetite  for  international  flattery. 

13.  Friendship  involves  sacrifice. 

14.  It  is  not  necessarily  a  mark  of  superiority  to  scorn  what  the  crowd 
admires. 

15.  Watching  a  game  is  no  substitute  for  plajang  a  game. 

16.  There  are  two  sides  to  most  labor  troubles,  only  one  of  which  appears 
in  the  newspapers. 

17.  The  college  community  seems  to  ignore  the  student  who  does  the 
hard,  quiet  work  for  college  enterprises. 

18.  American  cities  situated  on  rivers  have  not  yet  learned  how  to 
develop  thcii  waterfront  for  beauty  as  well  as  for  utility. 

19.  The  sky-scraper  may  be  made  the  worst  or  the  best  thing  in  Ameri- 
can architecture. 

20.  We  do  not  appreciate  the  beauty  of  woods  and  parks  in  winter. 

21.  The  ambition  to  speak  the  English  language  as  well  as  possible  is 
rare. 

22.  Is  the  collective  conscience  of  a  group  always  lower  than  the  indi- 
vidual consciences  of  the  persons  who  compose  it? 

23.  Rapid  transit  and  rapid  communication  of  intelligence  are  the  most 
important  characteristics  of  our  age. 

24.  Too  much  stj.idy  leaves  a  man  no  time  to  think. 

25.  Real  merit  is  surer  of  ultimate  recognition  in  the  college  world  than 
in  the  world  outside. 

26.  It  is  more  interesting,  as  well  as  more  useful,  to  help  the  discouraged 
than  to  try  to  rouse  the  proud  and  self-satisfied. 

2"].     A  sense  of  humor  is  the  best  domestic  lubricant. 

28.  We  are  happiest  when  busiest. 

29.  A  student's  life  is  in  constant  danger  of  becoming  a  selfish  life. 

30.  If  America  ever  fails,  it  will  be  because  she  has  failed  to  assimilate 
her  foreign  population. 

Suggested  A  ss  ignments 

Assignment  14.     Study  sections  67-72.     Learn  by  hciirt  the  six  methods 
of  paragraph  development  defined  in  section  71.     Read  the  specimen  para- 


GOOD  PARAGRAPHS  107 

graphs  in  section  ']2  wilh  sufficient  care  to  be  able  to  show  how  far  they 
illustrate  these  methods. 

Assignment  15.  Write  the  four  paragraphs  required  in  section  73. 
Revise,  and  copy  to  be  handed  in. 

Assignment  16.  Study  sections  74-77,  including  a  careful  examination 
of  the  paragraphs  quoted  as  examples  of  coherence  and  emphasis. 

Assignment  17.     Perform  the  exercise  indicated  in  section  78. 

Assignment  18.  Study  sections  79-82  and  perform  the  exercise  indicated 
in  section  83. 

Assignment  19.     Write  the  theme  called  for  in  section  84. 


CHAPTER  VI 
HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE   LIBRARY 

85.  The  use  of  a  library  must  be  learned  by  practice.     No 

information  such  as  that  contained  in  this  chapter  can  take  the 
place  of  patient,  persistent  attempts  to  use  the  resources  of  a 
good  library  in  actual  research.  Before  such  attempts  are 
undertaken,  however,  it  is  well  to  know  the  names  and  the  uses 
of  the  principal  tools  to  be  employed.  Samuel  Johnson  said: 
"Knowledge  is  of  two  kinds:  we  know  a  subject  ourselves,  or  we 
know  where  we  can  find  information  about  it."  This  latter 
kind  of  knowledge  is  indispensable  to  students;  and  a  library 
is  the  place  in  which  to  acquire  it.  If  all  that  one  needs  is  to 
find  something,  anything,  any  bit  of  information  whether  full  or 
scanty,  recent  or  obsolete,  bearing  upon  one's  subject,  little  care 
is  required  to  get  that.  But  if  one  desires  to  get  the  best, 
the  latest,  the  most  reliable  and  comprehensive  information,  one 
must  know  how  to  use  the  tools  which  the  library  afTords. 

86.  Library  regulations  must  be  observed.  All  libraries 
have  their  own  special  rules,  which  readers  are  expected  to  learn 
and  to  obey.  Three  rule?  are  nearly  always  prescribed  and 
enforced : 

(i)  Silence  must  be  maintained,  in  order  not  to  interfere 
with  the  rights  of  others.  This  means  literal  silence  to  the  extent 
that  no  general  or  social  conversation  is  permissible  in  a  Ubrary. 
Inquiries  addressed  to  library  attendants,  and  necessary  conver- 
sation with  them  or  with  instructors  regarding  the  subject  of 
one's  investigation,  should  be  conducted  in  an  undertone.  Dis- 
regard for  this  principle  is  a  mark  of  bad  manners. 

(2)     Books  taken  from  the  shelves  by  readers  for  use  in  the 

108 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       109 

library  should  either  be  left  on  the  tables  near  the  place  from 
which  they  were  taken,  or  if  replaced  should  be  put  back  in  the 
exact  place  where  they  belong.  If  there  is  any  doubt  in  which 
of  several  gaps  on  a  shelf  a  book  belongs,  it  should  be  left  on  the 
table.  The  reason  for  this  rule  is  that  a  book  misplaced  on  the 
shelves  is,  for  the  time  being,  a  lost  book,  useless  to  all  others 
who  may  look  for  it. 

(3)  No  book  should  ever  be  taken  outside  the  hbraiy  for  any 
purpose  by  any  person  without  being  properly  charged  at  the 
desk  by  means  ot  the  slip  or  card  provided  for  that  purpose. 
Carelessness  rather  than  intentional  dishonesty  in  this  matter  is 
responsible  for  the  loss  of  many  books,  some  of  which  cannot  be 
replaced.  To  take  out  a  book  without  charging  is,  in  effect  if  not 
in  intent,  to  steal  the  book.  That  one  expects  to  return  it  almost 
immediately  is  no  defence.  An  equally  dishonest  and  repre- 
hensible violation  of  rules  is  for  a  reader  to  secrete  a  book  some- 
where in  the  library  itself,  with  the  object  of  reserving  it  for  his 
exclusive  use  at  some  future  time.     No  gentleman  will  do  that. 

87.  General  reference  books  are  the  first  tools  for  research. 
A  reference  library  differs  from  a  small  private  library  in  having 
not  one  but  several  unabridged  dictionaries,  not  one  but  several 
of  the  latest  and  many  of  the  older  encyclopedias.  These  are 
usually  shelved  in  a  prominent  place,  and  should  ordinarily  be 
the  first  books  consulted.  Not  less  than  two  dictionaries  or 
encyclopedias  should  usually  be  examined  in  looking  up  any 
word  or  any  subject,  for  a  comparison  of  material  in  different 
sources  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  library  research.  Some 
of  the  most  important  general  reference  books  are  briefly  de- 
scribed in  the  following  sections. 

88.  Dictionaries.  There  are  four  unabridged  dictionaries 
that  may  be  consulted  by  one  who  needs  to  ascertain  accurately 
the  meanings  and  the  history  of  words.  The  first  two  of  these, 
the  New  International  Dictionary  and  the  New  Standard 
Dictionary,  are  sufficient  if  all  that  is  desired  is  a  comprehensive 


no  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

series  of  definitions  covering  all  the  current  meanings  of  a  word, 
together  wdth  some  of  its  older  meanings  and  its  etymology. 
For  an  exhaustive  history  of  a  word,  with  quoted  examples  of 
every  meaning  it  has  ever  borne  in  all  the  centuries  of  English 
literature,  the  one  place  to  go  to  is  A  New  English  Dictionary, 
(often  known  as  the  Oxford  Dictionary,  or  Murray's).  This 
great  work,  edited  and  published  in  Great  Britain,  and  just 
Hearing  completion  after  more  than  thirty  years  of  labor,  must 
be  examined  to  be  appreciated.  Its  principal  use  for  ordinar>' 
students  is  in  tracing  the  older  meanings  of  words  met  with  in 
courses  in  the  earlier  English  literature.  For  proper  names, 
and  for  much  encyclopedic  information  of  many  kinds,  the 
Century  Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia,  in  twelve  large  volumes,  is  a 
valuable  work  of  reference. 

In  the  use  of  the  New  International  Dictionary  the  reader  must 
bear  in  mind  that  if  he  does  not  find  a  word  in  its  proper  alpha- 
betical place  where  he  looks  for  it,  he  may  find  it  in  smaller  type 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  page  below  the  horizontal  rule,  among 
the  rarer  or  less  used  words.  A  dictionary  should  never  be 
consulted  without  noting  the  pronunciation  of  the  word  exam- 
ined, for  the  reason  that  nearly  every  one  discovers  in  this  way 
mispronunciations  which  would  not  otherwise  be  drawn  to  one's 
attention.  A  condensed  key  to  the  diacritical  marks  of  pro- 
nunciation is  printed  on  every  page.  In  the  New  Standard 
Dictionary  pronunciation  is  indicated  by  two  parallel  methods: 
the  first,  according  to  the  Revised  Scientific  Alphabet,  and  the 
second,  according  to  the  symbols  commonly  used  in  other  dic- 
tionaries. These  two  should  not  be  mistaken  for  different  pro- 
nunciations of  the  same  word. 

All  the  different  meanings  of  a  word  in  the  separate  numbered 
paragraphs  should  be  noted.  Such  of  them  as  are  marked  rare, 
obsolete,  provincial,  or  collociuial  are  recorded  for  completeness, 
not  as  indicating  any  present  authority  for  usage.  It  is  a  good 
practice  always  to  glance  through  the  paragraph  headed  "Syn." 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       iii 

in  order  to  note  the  distinctions  among  the  synonyms  of  a  word. 
Habitual  use  of  an  unabridged  dictionary  in  this  thorough 
fashion,  reading  all  that  is  printed  about  a  word  instead  of  stop- 
ping at  the  first  or  second  line,  will  be  of  great  value  in  extending 
one's  vocabulary.  Particularly  is  it  important  that  in  all  library 
reference  work,  whenever  one  meets  with  a  word  of  which  one 
does  not  know  the  meaning  or  the  pronunciation,  recourse  should 
be  had  to  the  dictionary.  No  form  of  mental  indolence  is  more 
disastrous  than  the  habit  of  skipping  hard  words. 

89.  General  encyclopedias.  Three  encyclopedias  covering 
the  entire  field  of  knowledge  are  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
(eleventh  edition,  twenty-nine  volumes,  1910-11);  the  New 
International  Encyclopedia  (revised  second  edition,  twenty-four 
volumes,  1 92 1 ) ;  and  the  Encyclopedia  A  mericana  (thirty  volumes, 
1918-20).  All  have  their  merits;  all  can  be  criticized  in  details. 
For  recent  events  and  developments  in  history  and  science  the 
International  and  the  Americana  supplement  the  Britannica. 
In  general  it  may  be  said,  however,  that  no  encyclopedia  can 
remain  for  more  than  a  year  or  two  after  its  pubhcation  a  suffi- 
cient source  of  information  on  topics  which  are  constantly  chang- 
ing. Books  which  enable  a  student  to  correct  and  to  add  to 
what  the  encyclopedia  can  give  are  mentioned  later  in  this 
chapter. 

One  caution  in  regard  to  the  use  of  encyclopedias  is  that 
it  is  seldom  sufficient  to  consult  a  single  article.  Material  bear- 
ing on  a  given  subject  is  scattered  through  half  a  dozen  volumes. 
Particularly  in  this  true  of  the  Britannica,  although  it  often 
groups  together  in  a  single  article  material  which  other  encyclo- 
pedias treat  under  several  distinct  titles.  After  examining  the 
article  on  Napoleon  I  in  the  Britannica  one  might  naturally 
suppose  that  one  had  exhausted  the  resources  of  the  encyclopedia 
on  that  subject.  Perhaps  it  would  occur  to  an  inquiring  mind, 
after  noting  the  separate  article  on  the  Napoleonic  campaigns, 
to  turn  to  the  article  on  French  history.     But  few  students  would 


112  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

suppose  that  this  encyclopedia  contains  about  seventy  other 
references  to  Napoleon,  scattered  through  many  volumes,  and 
discoverable  only  through  the  index.  One  who  is  preparing  to 
write  a  paper  on  some  aspect  of  Napoleon's  career  learns  through 
these  entries  in  the  index  that  further  information  is  to  be  found 
in  such  articles  as  those  on  Italy,  Paris,  Josephine,  and  St. 
Helena.  The  Britannica  index  need  not  always  be  consulted 
when  ample  material  is  at  hand  in  a  single  article,  but  will  often 
give  the  clew  in  an  otherwise  baffling  search. 

Neither  the  International  nor  the  Americana  has  an  alpha- 
betical index  like  that  of  the  Britannica.  Instead  they  have  more 
numerous  cross-references  (indicated  by  titles  printed  in  small 
capitals,  usually  preceded  by  "see,"  or  followed  by  the  abbrevia- 
tion q.v.,  meaning  quod  vide,  "which  see.")^  In  addition  to 
these  cross-references  each  of  these  encyclopedias  has  a  classified 
subject  index  volume;  that  of  the  International  being  entitled 
Courses  of  Reading  and  Study,  and  that  of  the  Americana  the 
Classified  Index.  These  two  volumes,  somewhat  similar  in 
purpose,  are  particularly  useful  to  literary  workers.  They  do 
more  than  merely  enumerate  collateral  articles  touching  on  a 
given  subject;  they  present  in  the  form  of  synopses  and  analyti- 
cal lists  of  topics  a  complete  subdivision  of  human  knowledge. 
The  use  of  such  synopses  may  be  best  shown  by  examples. 

Suppose  one  is  attracted  by  the  general  subject  of  monas- 
ticism.  Having  discovered  through  some  elementary  reading  of 
European  history  how  vast  was  the  influence  of  the  various 
religious  orders  of  the  Christian  church  upon  society  and  upon 
literature,  one  resolves  to  study  up  the  subject  and  write  an  essay 
upon  it.  Turning  to  the  sixth  chapter  of  the  Courses  of  Reading 
and  Study  published  in  connection  with  the  International,  one 
finds  the  whole  chapter  devoted  to  religion,  and  the  fourth 

'  Other  common  abbreviations  in  reference  books  are  cf.  (Latin  confer,  compare); 
ihid.  (Latin  ibidem,  \n  the  same  place);  Passim  (here  and  there,  in  various  places); 
op.  cit.  (Latin  o/>«rec»7a<o,  in  the  work  cited.) 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       113 

section  to  the  monastic  life.  Here  it  is  discovered  that  for 
information  on  this  subject  one  may  turn  not  only  to  the  article 
on  "Monasticism"  but  also  to  those  on  "Monastery,"  "Abbey," 
"Monastic  Art,"  "Asceticism;"  and  what  is  of  much  more 
importance,  one  finds  a  comprehensive  hst  of  monastic  orders, 
not  only  the  Augustiniaiis,  Benedictines,  Carthusians,  Carme- 
lites, but  numerous  others  less  familiar  to  the  general  reader. 

Moreover,  the  reader's  attention  is  called  by  this  synopsis 
to  the  fact  that  the  mediaeval  church  had  not  only  monastic 
orders  properly  so  called,  but  also  many  missionary  and  teaching 
orders  of  men  and  women  devoted  to  the  reUgious  Ufe  but  not  to 
entire  seclusion.  Here  comes  the  hst  of  such  orders  as  the 
Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Jesuits;  here  are  references  to  such 
biographies  as  those  of  Francis  de  Sales,  Ignatius  Loyola, 
Vincent  de  Paul.  This  distinction  between  cloistered  monks 
and  members  of  missionary  orders  may  have  been  more  or  less 
vaguely  known  to  the  student,  but  to  see  it  here  sharply  and 
distinctly  set  forth  calls  to  his  attention  the  fact  that  he  cannot 
possibly  write  about  the  whole  subject  of  monasticism  in  its 
broadest  sense.  In  making  his  selection  of  one  or  another  sub- 
division of  it,  he  is  enabled  to  see  it  in  its  relation  to  others;  to 
see  its  boundaries,  and  the  provinces  adjacent  on  either  side. 
When  finally  he  comes  to  read  up  for  an  essay  on  "St  Benedict 
and  Mediaeval  Book-Making,"  or  "Ruined  Enghsh  Abbeys," 
or  "Early  Jesuit  Missions  in  North  America,"  he  knows  at 
least  a  little  about  the  margins,  the  relations,  the  associations  of 
his  subject.  He  also  knows  that  he  may  get  a  picturesque  illus- 
tration for  a  paragraph  on  monasteries  from  the  etymological 
connection  between  the  names  of  the  Charterhouse  in  London, 
the  monastery  called  La  Grande  Chartreuse  in  southern  France, 
the  liqueur  known  as  chartreuse,  and  the  order  of  Carthusian 
monks.  Such  are  some  of  the  uses  of  a  classified  subject  in- 
dex. 

Again,  there  is  a  good  article  on  "Forestry  in  the  United 


114  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

States"  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  the  Encyclopedia  Afnericana, 
and  in  connection  therewith  cross-references  (printed  in  small 
capitals)  to  other  articles  in  the  same  volume,  such  as  "Forest 
Fires"  and  "Forest  Schools."  But  an  intelligent  person  desiring 
to  collect  material  for  an  essay  upon  some  topic  connected  with 
forestry  will  not  stop  with  this  volume.  In  the  Classified  Index 
volume  he  will  find,  in  a  division  entitled  "Forestry  and  Lumber- 
ing," references  not  only  to  all  these  articles  in  Volume  n,  but 
also  many  columns  of  titles  included  in  other  volumes.  There 
is  among  them  a  comprehensive  list  of  separate  articles  on  trees, 
to  which  a  student  would  refer  who  desired  to  illustrate  some 
point  about  the  comparati^'e  \-alue  of  different  species  of  pine 
for  reforestation,  or  the  annual  consumption  of  spruce  for  paper- 
making  and  Christmas  trees.  Furthermore,  the  combination  of 
titles  dealing  with  forestry  and  with  lumbering  calls  his  attention 
to  the  fact  that  the  only  kind  of  forestry  which  has  any  chance 
of  succeeding  is  not  the  sentimental  but  the  commercial  kind  — 
conservative  forestry,  combined  with  a  reasonable  annual  cutting 
of  lumber,  according  to  methods  which  may  disfigure  but  do  not 
ruin  the  forests. 

One  more  caution  in  regard  to  the  use  of  encyclopedias  is  of 
special  importance  for  those  whose  purpose  in  studying  them  is 
to  gather  material  for  composition.  Too  much  time  should  not 
be  spent  on  encyclopedias,  nor  should  elaborate  and  extensive 
notes  be  taken  from  them.  There  are .  two  reasons  for  this 
advice.  In  the  first  place,  since  one's  time  for  reading  up  a 
subject  is  always  too  short  for  ideal  thoroughness,  if  se\-eral 
hours  are  spent  on  encyclopedias  there  will  be  too  little  oppor- 
tunity for  a  kind  of  selective  and  comparative  reading  in  other 
books  and  in  periodicals  which  is  indispensable.  Secondly,  an 
essay  based  primarily  upon  notes  taken  from  encyclopedias  will 
tend  to  borrow  the  encyclopedic  di^•ision  and  arrangement  of 
material  instead  of  making  an  original  plan  to  fit  the  occasion; 
and  will  be  barren  of  such  illustrations,  anecdotes,  and  pictur- 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       115 

esque  scraps  of  information  as  are  to  be  found  in  other  less  formal 
sources.  A  middle  course,  therefore,  is  recommended  between 
too  hasty  and  too  minute  reading  of  encyclopedias:  let  it  be 
thorough  enough  to  get  hints  as  to  the  collateral  material 
indirectly  related  to  the  subject,  but  not  so  slow  and  laborious 
as  to  interfere  with  what  is  much  more  important  preparation 
for  the  writing  of  an  interesting  essay. 

General  encyclopedias  often  have  to  be  supplemented  by  two 
other  kinds  of  works  of  general  reference:  (i)  by  special  encyclo- 
pedias of  particular  branches  of  knowledge;  (2)  by  yearbooks,  and 
other  means  of  bridging  the  gap  between  the  date  of  the  encyclo- 
pedia and  the  present  time. 

90.  Special  encyclopedias.  For  a  comprehensive  list  of 
encyclopedias  and  dictionaries  of  special  branches  of  knowledge 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Kroeger  and  Mudge's  Guide  to  the  Study 
and  Use  of  Reference  Books,  revised  edition,  191 7.  This  is 
invaluable  for  persons  desiring  to  know  more  about  reference 
books,  magazine  indexes,  and  other  topics  in  library  science  than 
is  found  in  this  chapter.  Among  the  best  examples  of  special 
encyclopedias  and  handbooks,  many  of  which  are,  within  their 
fields,  fuller  and  more  authoritative  than  the  general  encyclo- 
pedias, are  the  following: 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture 

Sturgis's  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building 

Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and  Antiquities 

Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education 

Lamed's  History  for  Ready  Reference 

Ploetz's  Epitome  of  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern  History 

Putnam's  Handbook  of  Universal  History 

The  Cambridge  Modern  History 

The  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature 

The  Cambridge  History  of  American  Literature 

Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians 

Baldwin's  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology 

Bliss's  New  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform 


ii6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 

The  New  SchajJ-IIcrzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge 

Hastings's  Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics 

The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 

The  Jewish  Encyclopedia 

Bartlett's  Familiar  Quotations 

Hoyt's  Cyclopedia  of  Practical  Quotations 

Granger's  Dictionary  of  Poetry  and  Recitations 

Brewer's  The  Reader's  Handbook 

Brewer's  Dictionary  of  Phrase  and  Fable 

The  Century  Cyclopedia  of  Names 

Most  of  these  are  not  shelved  with  the  general  encyclopedias 
but  with  the  special  classes  to  which  they  belong.  Hence  it  is 
important  to  remember  that  there  are  such  books,  and  that  their 
articles  are  often  to  be  preferred  to  those  in  the  general  works. 
In  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  for  example,  a 
student  working  in  a  library  which  has  but  few  recent  and 
detailed  books  on  musical  theory  and  history  will  be  able  to  find 
abundant  material  for  many  aspects  of  a  musical  subject.  The 
Cambridge  series,  written  by  specialists  throughout,  is  indis- 
pensable for  many  topics  in  modern  history  and  literature. 

All  encyclopedias  include  at  the  end  of  important  articles 
a  select  bibliography  of  the  subject,  naming  the  most  important 
books  to  be  consulted  for  further  information.  In  reading 
encyclopedias  one  will  take  note  of  such  bibliographical  lists, 
at  least  to  remember  that  they  are  there;  and  usually  to  the 
extent  of  ascertaining  which  of  these  books  are  in  the  library. 
This  may  easily  be  checked  by  reference  to  the  card  catalogue, 
preferably  by  looking  first  for  the  author's  name  (rather  than 
for  the  title),  unless  it  is  a  very  common  surname  and  one  has 
not  the  initials.  To  make  such  use  of  the  bibhography  in  the 
encyclopedia  at  the  time  one  reads  the  article  will  save  the 
trouble  of  returning  to  it  later  when  one  is  searching  for  books 
bearing  on  the  subject. 

91.     Biographical  dictionaries.     Among  special  encyclopedias 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       117 

perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  in  some  kinds  of  reference  work 
are  dictionaries  and  catalogues  of  biographical  information 
about  the  leading  men  of  past  and  present  times.  The  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography  is  indispensable  for  facts  about  Eng- 
lishmen not  now  living.  With  its  first  and  second  supplements 
this  great  work,  compiled  by  specialists  and  amply  suppHed  with 
references  to  original  sources  and  with  bibliographical  lists,  is 
the  best  of  all  biographical  dictionaries.  The  second  supplement 
carries  it  down  to  191 2.  Brief  biographical  data  about  living 
Englishmen  and  British  citizens  throughout  the  British  Empire 
are  found  in  the  current  volume  of  Who's  Who,  together  with 
sketches  of  a  small  number  of  eminent  men  living  in  other 
countries.  Back  numbers  of  Who's  Who  cover  the  lives  of 
Englishmen  recently  deceased.  A  volume  called  Who  Was  Who 
serves  the  same  purpose  for  those  who  died  between  1897  and 
1916. 

For  American  biography  there  is  the  current  volume  of  Who's 
Who  in  America  for  living  men,  and  the  back  numbers  for  Amer- 
icans who  have  died  during  the  past  few  years.  American 
Men  of  Science  supplements  this  at  some  points.  But  for  stand- 
ard biography  of  Americans  of  earlier  times  neither  Appleton's 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography  (eight  volumes)  nor  the 
National  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography  .(sixteen  volumes) 
can  bear  comparison  with  the  British  work.  These  two  cyclo- 
pedias, however,  are  often  useful,  especially  in  looking  up  men 
Ijriefly  treated,  or  not  treated  at  all,  in  the  general  encyclopedias. 

92.  Yearbooks.  For  supplementing  all  encyclopedias  be- 
yond the  date  of  their  publication  it  is  necessary  to  use  annual 
volumes  surveying  the  events  of  each  year.  The  best  of  these 
for  comprehensive  summaries  dealing  with  all  fields  of  human 
progress  is  the  New  International  Year  Book,  published  annually 
since  1907.  The  volumes  of  this  work,  from  1914  to  1918,  for 
example,  will  give  a  more  compact  account  of  history,  science, 
social  reforms,  during  the  World  War  than  most  other  sources. 


ii8  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

In  each  volume,  under  the  heading  of  Hterature,  will  be  found 
a  discriminating  survey  of  the  Ijest  books  pubhshed  duiing  the 
preceding  year  —  a  most  valuable  guide  to  students  in  selecting 
recent  books  in  fiction,  poetry,  biography,  travel,  for  general 
reading.  Progress  in  scientific  invention  and  discovery  —  a  field 
in  which  any  encyclopedia  is  soon  obsolete  —  is  best  traced  in 
this  work,  unless  one  has  time  for  extensive  reading  of  periodicals. 
A  smaller  annual  volume  of  a  similar  sort  is  the  American  Year 
Book. 

Another  kind  of  yearbook,  issued  earlier  in  the  year  and  there- 
fore more  nearly  up  to  date,  and  containing  chiefly  statistical 
material,  is  represented  in  this  country  by  three  newspaper 
annuals.  These  are  the  World  Almanac,  the  Tribune  Almanac, 
and  the  Chicago  Daily  News  Almanac.  The  first  named  is 
the  most  comprehensive  and  the  most  widely  used.  In  these 
books  the  index  should  always  be  consulted  in  order  to  save  time. 
A  subject  is  often  treated  in  two  or  more  places.  For  such 
matters  as  political  statistics,  party  platforms,  population  and 
other  figures  for  cities,  data  concerning  hundreds  of  colleges  and 
universities,  economic  facts  such  as  prices,  tariffs,  banking  and 
commerce,  the  World  Almanac  is  indispensable.  It  is  often 
better  to  take  figures  from  such  annuals  than  from  an  ordinary 
magazine  article,  since  the  chances  are  that  the  almanac  is  more 
carefully  edited. 

Two  other  much  larger  American  yearbooks,  often  useful 
where  the  newspaper  almanacs  are  inadequate,  are  the  American 
Slafesman's  Year  Book  anfl  the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United 
States.  The  latter,  a  government  publication  supplied  free  to 
all  libraries,  contains  official  statistics  of  population,  finance, 
commerce,  agriculture,  immigration,  education,  and  other  sub- 
jects. The  bulletins  frequently  issued  by  the  Census  Bureau, 
though  based  on  figures  already  several  years  old,  sometimes 
pnnide  an  expert  collation  and  analysis  of  statistics  superior 
for  some  purposes  to   more  recent  but   imperfectly  digested 


HOW  TO   USE  A   REFERENCE  LIBRARY       119 

figures.  These  bulletins  are  not  usually  kept  on  open  shelves 
and  may  be  called  for  by  means  of  call  slips,  prepared  by  refer- 
ence to  the  card  catalogue  (entered  under  "United  States  — 
Census  Bureau.") 

For  Great  Britain  and  the  British  Empire  there  are  four  year- 
books of  special  importance.  The  first  and  most  widely  used  is 
the  Statesman's  Year  Book.  While  giving  more  space  to 
British  affairs  than  to  others,  it  covers  the  principal  facts  about 
the  governments,  armies  and  navies,  population,  commerce,  of 
all  the  countries  of  the  world.  This  is  the  work  to  consult  for 
the  names  of  rulers,  statesmen,  officials,  diplomats,  army  and 
navy  officers.  Any  question  about  the  public  affairs  of  India, 
Canada,  or  Australia  is  to  be  answered  here;  and  likewise  any 
important  fact  or  figure  about  Japan,  or  Brazil,  or  Portugal. 
Two  smaller  but  convenient  works  of  similar  kind  are  Whitaker's 
Almanack  and  the  New  Hazel!  Annual  and  Almanack.  A  fourth 
British  annual  of  a  different  sort  is  the  Annual  Register,  founded 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  still  useful  for  summaries  of  British 
legislation  and  parliamentary  proceedings  fuller  than  those  given 
elsewhere  in  accessible  form. 

93.  Atlases  and  gazetteers.  The  foreign  atlases  have  finer 
maps  of  foreign  countries,  but  for  ordinary  use  the  Rand 
McNally  Library  Atlas  of  the  World  is  still  generally  adequate. 
The  Century  Atlas  of  the  World  (twelfth  volume  of  the  Century 
Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia)  is  easier  to  handle  because  of  the 
smaller  pages.  Changes  in  European  and  African  boundaries 
since  the  World  War,  and  other  geographical  changes  throughout 
the  world,  are  best  shown  in  recent  loose-leaf  atlases  such  as  the 
New  World  Loose  Leaf  Atlas.  For  Great  Britain  the  new  atlases 
published  by  the  London  Times  and  Daily  Telegraph  are 
especially  good.  A  new  edition  of  Stieler's  Hand-atlas  (Ger- 
man) is  valuable  for  its  fine  maps,  and  for  its  careful  translitera- 
tion of  Sla\'ic  names  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.  For  the 
speUing  and  proununciation  of  geographical  names,  aside  from 


I20  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  lists  given  in  the  unabridged  dictionaries,  LippincoWs  New 
Gazetteer  of  the  World  is  often  useful. 

94.  How  to  find  other  books.  The  next  stage  in  library 
research,  after  consulting  general  reference  books,  is  to  discover 
other  books  dealing  more  fully  or  more  interestingly  with  the 
subject  of  inquiry.  To  depend  entirely  on  encyclopedias  and 
yearbooks  is  to  limit  one's  material  to  bare  facts  presented  in 
the  briefest  possible  way.  Such  material  may  be  adequate  in 
amount,  but  can  never  be  adequate  in  variety,  in  suggestiveness, 
in  stimulus  to  the  imagination.  Good  writing  based  upon 
reading  can  be  done  only  when  the  mind  and  the  notebook  are 
stored  with  a  rich  hoard  of  ideas  gathered  from  many  sources, 
the  ideas  of  many  men,  collected  with  industry,  classified  with 
discrimination,  and  worked  over  with  a  degree  of  creative  zeal. 
One  must  read  widely  enough  to  see  the  subject  from  several 
angles,  to  see  beyond  it  and  around  it  and  through  it,  to  become 
genuinely  interested  in  it  and  in  the  right  presentation  of  it  to  an 
intelligent  reader.  For  these  purposes  comparative  reading  is 
indispensable.  How  to  find  other  books,  aside  from  those  of  an 
encyclopedic  character,  is  now  the  problem.  It  is  a  twofold 
problem:  (i)  to  discover  the  titles  of  all  the  books  in  the  library 
that  deal  wholly  or  in  part  with  the  subject,  so  far  as  limited 
time  permits;  and  (2)  to  select  among  these  books  a  few,  the  best 
for  one's  particular  purpose,  from  which  chapters  or  passages 
are  to  be  read  and  suitable  notes  are  to  be  made.  The  solution 
of  the  first  part  of  the  problem  is  to  be  found  in  the  proper  use  of 
the  caid  catalogue.  For  the  second  part  there  are  certain  useful 
guides,  helpful  in  separating  the  best  books  from  books  inferior 
in  quality  or  inconvenient  for  use  on  other  grounds.  These  two 
questions  are  now  to  be  considered  in  turn:  (i)  What  are  all  the 
books  in  this  library  that  can  contribute  anything  to  my  investi- 
gation?    (2)     On  which  of  these  shall  I  spend  most  of  my  time? 

95.  The  card  catalogue.  Any  Hbrary  catalogue  answers 
upon  first  inspection  two  of  the  questions  that  a  reader  may  ask 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       121 

about  books:  (i)  Has  tlie  library  a  book  by  a  certain  author? 
(2)  Has  the  library  a  book  with  a  certain  title?  A  third  ques- 
tion, answered  with  varying  fullness  and  accuracy  according  to 
the  merit  of  the  catalogue,  is:  (3)  What  books  in  the  library  deal 
wholly  or  in  part  with  a  certain  subject?  Corresponding  to  these 
three  questions,  at  least  three  cards  are  generally  entered  in  the 
catalogue  for  every  book  except  fiction  and  poetry:  (i)  an  author 
card;  (2)  a  title  card;  (3)  a  subject  card.  For  fiction  and  poetry 
the  first  two  of  these  are  usually  sufficient. 

(i)  If  we  wish  to  know  whether  the  library  has  a  copy  of  a 
book  of  which  we  have  both  the  author's  name  and  the  title,  we 
look  in  the  proper  alphabetical  place  for  the  author's  surname. 
Turning  over  rapidly  from  the  beginning  all  cards  bearing  that 
surname,  we  come  to  those  with  the  desired  forename  or  initials. 
Among  the  works  of  the  author  in  question,  we  look  in  its  proper 
alphabetical  place  (disregarding  The,  A )  for  the  title  of  the  book 
we  wish  to  find.  This  process,  the  simplest  possible  in  Hbrary 
work,  of  finding  the  author  card  for  a  book  of  known  author  and 
known  title,  is  occasionally  compUcated  by  the  use  of  a  pseudo- 
nym (abbreviated  pseud.)  or  nom  de  plume.  Libraries  generally 
enter  Mark  Twain's  books  under  his  real  name,  Clemens,  S.  L. ; 
but  for  the  guidance  of  readers  a  card  is  entered  under  Twain, 
Mark,  with  the  direction  "see  Clemens,  S.  L."  Other  difficulties 
sometimes  arise  in  the  case  of  surnames  beginning  with  an 
abbreviation,  for  example,  the  English  surname  St.  John, 
placed  under  Sa;  or  of  French  surnames  beginning  with  de, 
indexed  under  the  following  word,  except  when  the  name  has 
become  anglicized  with  the  prefix  as  part  of  the  surname;  or 
of  the  names  beginning  Mc,  Mac,  M',  which  are  found  after 
Mab,  arranged  according  to  the  first  letter  after  the  prefix. 

(2)  A  second  question,  how  to  find  the  title  card  for  a  book 
of  which  the  author's  name  is  not  known,  or  of  an  anonymous 
book,  is  nearly  as  simple.  Remembering  that  an  initial  article 
{The,  A)  is  disregarded  in  the  alphabetical  arrangement,  we 


122  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

should  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  a  title  card  among  the  M's 
for  Mirrors  of  Downing  Street,  The.  It  is  often  advisable, 
if  the  title  card  is  not  found  under  the  first  word  of  the  title,  to 
look  for  another  important  word.  But  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  reason  we  do  not  find  a  title  card  is  that  our  recollection 
of  the  title  is  inaccurate.  In  that  case  we  must  turn  to  the  sub- 
ject cards.  ^ 

(3)  Under  this  third  heading,  subject  entries,  is  to  be  found 
most  of  the  information  which  a  card  catalogue  can  give  the 
reader.  Since  many  books  have  titles  which  give  an  imperfect 
notion  of  their  real  subject,  the  cataloguer  makes  what  is  called 
a  subject  card,  at  the  top  of  wliich  is  a  subject  heading  followed 
by  the  author's  name  and  the  title.  This  subject  heading  is 
often  in  red  ink.  Thus,  under  a  subject  heading  like  "Gothic 
Architecture, "among  the  G's,  will  be  a  card  referring  the  reader 
to  "Architecture,  Gothic."  Turning  to  the  A's,  we  find  a  com- 
plete subject  catalogue  of  all  the  works  on  architecture,  among 
which  will  be  a  guide  card  (projecting  above  the  level  of  the 
other  cards)  with  the  caption  "Gothic"  or  some  equivalent 
phrase.  The  cards  following  this  guide  card  include  the  titles  of 
all  books  dealing  with  Gothic  architecture,  not  merely  those 
which  have  the  word  Gothic  in  their  titles.  Among  them  may  be 
a  cross-reference  card  with  the  direction  "see  also  Cathedrals; 
Church  Architecture."  Under  "Cathedrals"  will  be  cards  repre- 
senting books  which  deal  primarily  not  with  Gothic  architecture 
in  general,  but  with  special  examples  of  it  in  the  cathedrals  of 
England  or  France  or  some  other  country.  If  we  are  particu- 
larly interested  in  French  cathedrals,  our  reading  of  the  encyclo- 
pedia will  ha\'e  informed  us  that  the  cathedral  of  Chartres  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  France;  and  looking  up  Chartres  among  the  C's 
we  shall  find  a  card  for  Henry  Adams's  wonderful  book  entitled 

'Capitalization  of  book  titles  in  library  catalogues  differs  from  that  in  general  use. 
Only  the  first  word  of  the  title  and  the  proocr  nouns  and  proper  adjectives  are  capital- 
ized. This  usaee,  for  which  there  are  technical  reasons,  should  not  be  imitated  by 
students  in  writing  book  titles  in  the  body  of  an  essay. 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       123 

Mont-Saint-Michel  and  Chart  res.  Following  such  clews,  pur- 
suing the  theme  from  one  drawer  to  another  upon  the  hints  found 
in  the  "see  also"  cards,  we  shall  gradually  transfer  to  our  notes 
the  titles  of  many  books  which  could  not  otherwise  have  been 
discovered.  A  well-made  card  catalogue,  with  all  the  subject 
entries  and  cross-references  suggested  by  the  printed  cards 
issued  by  the  Library  of  Congress  and  by  manuals  of  classifica- 
tion, will  answer  almost  any  question  about  books  deahng  with  a 
given  subject.  Suppose  our  subject  is  "Arms  and  Armor  of 
the  Viking  Age."  We  shall  look  up  not  only  "Arms  and  Armor" 
but  also  "Viking,"  and  under  the  latter  head  will  be  a  card  for 
Paul  B.  Du  Chaillu's  The  Viking  Age.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
title  card  (if  the  library  uses  the  Library  of  Congress  printed 
cards)  appears  a  line  in  small  type  reading  "i.  Northmen.  2. 
Vikings.  3.  Scandinavia  —  Antic}uities."  This  line  directs 
the  cataloguer  to  place  cards  for  Du  Chaillu's  book  not  only 
under  his  name  (author  card)  and  the  heading  "Viking"  (title 
card)  but  also  under  "Northmen"  and  "Scandinavia  —  Antiqui- 
ties." The  third  of  these  three  items  should  lead  us  to  the  S's 
where  under  "Scandinavia  —  Antiquities"  we  find,  along  with 
Du  Chaillu's  book,  cards  for  many  other  works  on  Scandinavian 
antiquities,  some  of  which  we  shall  need  to  use  for  comparison 
with  The  Viking  Age.  But  more  than  this,  we  also  find  under 
this  subject  heading  a  "see  also"  card,  written  or  typed  in  red 
ink,  which  informs  us,  or  reminds  us,  that  we  should  also  con- 
sult other  subject  headings  such  as  "Denmark,"  "Norway," 
"Sweden,"  and  "Normans."  We  are  now  on  the  track  of  more 
books  than  we  can  possibly  read  or  even  examine  in  the  limited 
time  available;  but  without  following  up  some  of  these  cross- 
references  we  should  have  had  an  inadequate  basis  for  selection, 
perhaps  Umited  to  Du  Chaillu  and  one  or  two  other  books  cata- 
logued under  "Vikings"  and  "Arms  and  Armor." 

The  principle  involved  in  these  illustrations  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  in  library  research.     It  may  be  stated  as  follows; 


124  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 

After  consulting  the  catalogue  under  the  most  obvious  subject 
heading  suggested  by  the  topic,  follow  up  in  turn  all  the  cross- 
references  to  other  subject  headings  given  either  by  the  red-ink 
"see  also"  cards,  or  by  the  list  of  subject  headings  found  at  the 
bottom  of  the  printed  Library  of  Congress  cards.  If  the  subject 
is  so  worded  that  one  does  not  know  where  to  begin  the  search, 
the  quickest  method  is  sometimes  to  select  from  the  bibliography 
at  the  end  of  an  encyclopedia  article  the  titles  of  two  or  three 
books,  and  to  look  for  these  in  the  card  catalogue  under  the 
authors'  names.  The  notations  on  these  cards  will  usually 
give  the  clew  to  at  least  one  subject  heading,  which  may  then 
be  followed  up  as  above.  If  this  method  fails,  the  reference 
librarian  will  give  assistance. 

There  is  one  kind  of  book,  often  most  valuable,  the  contents 
of  which  would  be  almost  inaccessible  without  the  use  of  the 
catalogue  —  a  book  containing  detached  essays  on  various 
subjects.  For  such  a  book  the  catalogue  contains  several  cards 
called  "analytics,"  one  for  each  subject  covered.  Thus  Steven- 
son's Familiar  Studies  of  Men  and  Books,  with  essays  on  such 
men  as  Victor  Hugo,  Walt  Whitman,  Henry  David  Thoreau, 
Franfois  Villon,  is  catalogued  not  only  under  "Stevenson" 
(author  card)  and  "Familiar"  (title  card),  but  under  "Hugo 
Victor,"  "Villon,  Francois,"  and  all  the  rest.  The  top  hne  of 
these  analytic  cards  is  usually  in  red.  If,  then,  we  are  reading  up 
on  Villon,  we  shall  find  under  V  not  only  whole  books  written 
about  him  by  others,  whether  biography  or  criticism,  (headed 
with  his  name  in  red  ink),  but  also  single  essays  and  chapters 
by  Stevenson  and  others  entered  on  these  analytic  cards.  With- 
out analytics,  a  reader  might  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  reading 
books  about  Dante  without  ever  discovering  Lowell's  essay  on 
Dante  in  Among  My  Books. 

Indeed,  as  one  tests  repeatedly  the  resources  of  a  good  library 
catalogue,  puzzled  and  annoyed  at  first  by  being  sent  from  one 
drawer  to  another  in  quest  of  the  right  heading,  one  learns 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       125 

gradually  to  appreciate  the  order  underlying  all  this  apparent 
complexity,  and  to  be  grateful  to  those  who  devised  a  method 
so  thorough,  and  in  the  end,  so  satisfying.  In  an  open-shelf 
library,  or  one  in  which  a  large  number  of  books  are  open  to 
inspection,  there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  students  to  depend 
altogether  upon  what  they  can  find  on  the  shelves.  Failure 
to  use  the  catalogue  in  the  thorough,  painstaking  way  above 
illustrated  will  surely  result  in  superficial  and  one-sided  reading. 
There  are  at  least  two  obvious  reasons  why  inspection  of  the 
shelves  alone  is  insufficient:  first,  because  some  of  the  most 
important  books  on  the  subject  may  have  been  withdrawn  from 
the  shelves  by  some  reader  in  the  library  or  by  some  borrower 
for  home  use;  secondly,  because  without  the  "see  also"  cards 
one  is  sure  to  overlook  important  collateral  material.  But, 
although  one  cannot  depend  upon  the  shelves  alone,  one  needs 
to  know,  especially  in  an  open-shelf  library  or  large  reading-room, 
how  to  find  books  on  the  shelves  when  the  class  to  which  they 
belong  has  been  ascertained.  This  knowledge  requires  a  brief 
examination  of  library  classification. 

96.  Library  classification.  In  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of 
each  card  in  the  card  catalogue  will  be  found,  written  or  typed, 
a  number  consisting  of  a  series  of  figures,  with  or  without  letters, 
such  as  824  S31,  or  D  38.  This  combination  of  figures,  or 
figures  and  letters,  known  as  the  "call  number,"  must  be  written 
by  the  reader  on  a  call  sHp  when  he  wishes  the  book  brought  by 
an  attendant  from  the  stack,  or  on  a  charging  slip  when  he  has 
found  the  book  and  desires  to  take  it  from  the  Hbrary.  The  call 
number  in  some  libraries  is  simply  the  "class  number"  or  "shelf 
number"  of  the  book,  indicating  its  classification  and  its  relative 
position  on  the  shelves;  in  other  libraries  the  call  number  is 
made  up  of  the  class  number  (such  as  824,  English  essays)  plus 
a  "book  number"  (S31,  indicating  that  the  author's  name 
begins  with  S  and  is  distinguished  by  the  symbol  31  from  other 
S's  in  that  class).     This  second  part  of  the  call  number,  when 


126  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

used,  is  of  importance  only  to  the  library  attendants  in  finding 
and  replacing  the  book  on  the  shelves.  The  class  number,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  important  to  the  reader  as  well,  if  he  is  working 
in  a  library  where  access  to  the  shelves  is  permitted.  For,  in 
order  to  find  readily  the  books  in  any  class,  one  must  understand 
the  principle  of  arrangement,  and  must  refer  to  some  printed  list 
or  placard  indicating  the  meaning  of  the  more  common  symbols. 

Some  of  the  largest  libraries  in  the  country  and  many  smaller 
ones  have  special  systems  of  classification  peculiar  to  themselves. 
A  few  use  the  Library  of  Congress  classification.  In  a  great 
majority  of  public  libraries  and  college  libraries,  however,  will 
be  found  either  the  Decimal  Classification  devised  by  Melvil 
Dewey  or  the  Expansive  Classification  of  Charles  A.  Cutter. 
The  Decimal  employs  combinations  of  figures  alone,  the  Expan- 
sive of  letters  and  figures.  For  example,  the  history  of  Italian 
art  is  709.45  in  the  Decimal,  W35  in  the  Expansive.  Inasmuch 
as  the  Decimal  Classification  has  been  widely  adopted  during 
the  past  few  years,  and  is,  in  spite  of  some  defects,  likely  to 
supersede  in  time  many  of  the  local  systems,  a  brief  explanation 
of  it  may  not  be  inappropriate  at  this  i)oint. 

Dewey  divides  the  field  of  knowledge  into  nine  main  classes, 
numbered  100  to  900,  and  places  general  works  of  reference  in  a 
preliminary  class  numbered  zero,  as  follows: 


Classes 

000  General  Works  500  Natural  Science 

icx)  Philosophy  6oo  Useful  Arts 

2(XJ  Religion  700  Fine  Arts 

300  Sociology  800  Literature 

400  Philology  900  History,  Biography,  Travel 

Each  of  these  classes  is  divided  into  ten  divisions,  01  which 
the  first  is  general,  as,  for  example: 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       127 

Example  of  Divisions 

500  Natural  Science  550  Geology 

510  Mathematics  560  Paleontology 

520  Astronomy  570  Biology 

530  Physics  580  Botany 

540  Chemistry  590  Zoology 

Each  of  the  divisions  is  again  divided  into  ten  sections,  as 
for  example: 

Ex.\MPLE  OF  Sections 

530  Physics  535  Optics 

531  Mechanics  536  Heat 

532  Hydraulics  537  Electricity 

533  Pneumatics  538  Magnetism 

534  Acoustics  539  Molecular  Physics 

There  are  therefore  1000  sections,  the  complete  list  of  which 
may  be  found  in  the  official  manual  of  the  system,  entitled  The 
Dewey  Decimal  Classification,  or  in  the  A.  L.  A.  Catalogue, 
a  book  referred  to  later  in  this  chapter.  Such  a  classification 
is  adequate  for  any  general  library  of  moderate  size.  Indefinite 
subdivision  is  provided  for,  however,  by  the  addition  of  sub- 
section numbers,  separated  from  the  section  number  by  a  decimal 
point.  Thus  371  is  the  section  on  Teaching  Methods,  and  371.7 
(read  371  point  7)  is  School  Hygiene,  and  371.42  Manual 
Training. 

Modifications  of  the  Decimal  Classification  adapting  it  to 
special  conditions  are  often  found.  Biography,  for  example, 
instead  of  being  grouped  together  under  920,  is  often  divided  so 
that  biographies  of  men  of  science  come  in  the  500  class,  of 
artists  in  the  700s,  of  literary  men  under  literature,  800.  Again, 
college  libraries  may  prefer  to  class  and  shelve  near  together 
works  on  the  language  of  a  country  (400)  and  its  literature 
(800).  Such  changes  are  easily  learned  by  experience  in  a 
library  which  has  adopted  them. 


128  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Observant  students  will  soon  find  it  convenient  to  learn  the 
class  numbers  of  classes  with  which  they  are  chiefly  concerned. 
In  an  open-shelf  hbrary  the  alcoves  are  often  designated  by 
these  class  numbers,  and  the  location  of  books  may  be  further 
indicated  by  labels  affixed  to  metal  chps  on  the  edges  of  the 
shelves.  Within  each  subdivision  the  arrangement  is  generally 
alphabetical  by  authors,  except  in  the  case  of  biography  and 
criticism,  in  which  the  alphabetical  arrangement  is  that  of  the 
names  of  persons  about  whom  the  books  are  written. 

In  looking  for  books  on  the  shelves  it  should  always  be  remem- 
bered that  the  particular  book  desired  may  be  in  use  elsewhere 
in  the  hbrary,  even  though  one  has  already  ascertained  at  the 
charging-desk  that  it  has  not  been  taken  out  by  a  borrower. 
Another  point  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  exceptionally  tall  books 
(designated  on  catalogue  cards  as  quarto  or  foho)  have  to  be 
placed  out  of  their  natural  order  on  deeper  shelves,  near  the 
floor  or  elsewhere  in  the  alcove.  It  is  further  to  be  remembered, 
by  readers  depending  too  much  on  inspection  of  the  shelves  and 
too  httle  on  the  catalogue,  that  frequently  the  works  of  an 
author  belong  in  several  classes,  and  hence  are  not  shelved 
together.  The  only  way  to  make  sure  that  one  has  found  all 
the  books  of  a  given  author,  including  perhaps  fiction,  essays, 
biography,  and  poetry,  is  to  consult  the  author  cards  bearing  his 
name  in  the  catalogue. 

The  principal  reason  why  the  ordinary  reader  needs  to  know 
anything  at  all  about  Hbrary  classification  is  that,  he  should 
understand  the  necessity  for  consulting  the  catalogue  with  its 
subject  entries  and  cross-reference  cards  instead  of  relying  on 
the  shelves,  and  for  copying  accurately  the  call  numbers  from 
the  catalogue  on  his  call  slip  or  charging  sHp.  It  may  be  added 
that  in  the  library  records  every  book  is  designated  not  only  by 
a  call  number  but  also  by  a  serial  number  called  the  "accession 
numl:)er."  This  number,  assigned  to  each  volume  at  the  time  it 
is  catalogued,  distinguishes  the  book  from  all  others  in  the  hbrary 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       129 

written  by  the  same  author  in  the  same  class,  and  even  from 
dupUcates.  It  is  sometimes  entered  on  a  label  pasted  in  the 
back  of  the  book,  and  if  the  rules  so  require  should  be  copied 
on  the  charging  slip  in  addition  to  the  call  number.  This  require- 
ment, however,  applies  only  to  books  borrowed  for  home  use, 
and  does  not  prevail  in  many  libraries. 

97.  Correct  form  for  a  select  bibliography.  As  one  works 
among  general  reference  books  and  at  the  card  catalogue  case, 
looking  up  titles  of  books  and  parts  of  books  dealing  with  a  given 
subject,  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  take  notes  of  these  titles. 
Such  notes  will  be  easier  to  arrange  later  in  the  systematic  form 
of  a  select  bibHography  of  the  subject  if  neatly  and  uniformly 
recorded.  There  are  several  ways  of  doing  this,  two  of  which 
may  be  described  as  follows: 

(i)  Small  cards,  or  small  slips  of  paper  of  uniform  size,  may 
be  used  for  the  first  draft  of  the  bibliography,  a  separate  card  or 
sh'p  for  each  title.  In  this  case  one  may  follow  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  catalogue  card,  placing  in  an  upper  corner 
the  call  number,  and  copying  carefully  the  author's  name,  with 
initials,  the  title  of  the  book,  and  the  date.  None  of  the  supple- 
mentary material  found  on  some  catalogue  cards,  such  as  the 
number  of  pages,  publisher,  etc.,  need  be  included.  If  this 
form  of  bibliography  is  used,  each  card  representing  an  encyclo- 
pedia will  also  contain,  arranged  on  separate  lines,  the  titles 
of  the  separate  articles  to  be  consulted,  with  the  volume  and 
page  for  each.  In  the  case  of  a  card  representing  a  book  deaUng 
only  in  part  with  the  subject,  nothing  more  than  the  call  number, 
author,  title,  and  date  can  be  entered  while  one  is  working  at 
the  catalogue;  but  later,  when  one  examines  the  book  itself,  the 
proper  reference  by  chapter  or  pages  will  be  added.  A  select 
bibliography  made  in  this  way  on  cards  may,  if  the  cards  are  large 
enough  (three  by  five  inches),  and  if  the  data  above  named  are 
compactly  entered  at  the  top,  be  made  to  serve  also  for  brief 
notes  taken  from  the  books  when  read.     Further  discussion  of 


I30  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

this  advantage  of  using  cards  is  postponed  until  we  come  to  the 
question  of  note-taking  (Section  io6). 

(2)  Large  sheets  of  paper  ruled  in  vertical  columns  may  be 
used.  In  this  case  the  page  should  be  large  enough  (eight  by 
ten  and  one-half  inches)  to  enable  all  the  information  to  be  got 
into  a  single  line,  if  possible.  The  same  arrangement  of  items 
is  suitable:  first  column,  the  call  number;  second  column,  author's 
surname,  followed  by  initials;  third  column,  the  title,  which  if 
long  may  run  over  to  a  second  line  in  the  same  column;  fourth 
column,  the  date;  fifth  column,  to  be  left  blank  for  entering 
volume  and  page,  when  necessary,  at  the  time  of  consulting  the 
book.  The  reason  for  noting  the  call  number  in  every  case  is 
that  by  including  it  one  is  enabled,  without  going  back  to  the 
catalogue,  to  write  a  call  slip  for  the  book  when  it  is  wanted,  or 
to  find  it  on  the  open  shelves. 

Whether  one  form  or  the  other  is  used  —  small  cards  or  large 
sheets  —  the  first  draft,  hurriedly  written,  perhaps  in  pencil,  and 
lacking  logical  arrangement,  will  need  to  be  classified  and  copied 
in  orderly  form  for  submission  to  the  instructor.  The  original 
notes  should  be  preserved  for  the  student's  use  in  reading  up  the 
subject.  A  suitable  arrangement  of  the  material  for  a  bibli- 
ography covering  books  alone  would  be,  (i)  the  general  encyclo- 
pedias and  other  works  of  general  reference;  (2)  books  dealing 
wholly  with  the  sul)ject,  if  any;  (3)  books  dealing  in  part  with 
the  subject. 

98.  Selecting  the  best  books.  We  have  now  learned  enough 
about  catalogues  and  classification  to  enable  us  with  sufficient 
practice  to  ascertain  what  books  the  library  has  on  a  given  sub- 
ject, and  to  find  them  on  the  open  shelves.  But  a  second  ques- 
tion, not  yet  touched  upon,  is,  which  of  these  books  are  tlie  best 
for  our  purpose?  How  shall  we  select,  from  the  catalogue  entries 
in  a  closed-shelf  library,  or  from  the  shelves  in  an  open-shelf 
library,  three  or  four  books  out  of  a  dozen  or  a  score?  The 
question  is  answered,  (i)  by  noting  certain  principles  of  selec- 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       131 

tion;  and  (2)  by  consulting  certain  guide-books  to  the  best 
books. 

The  date  of  a  book  has  some  bearing  on  its  relative  value.  In 
science  and  the  applied  arts  as  a  general  rule  only  the  latest  books 
should  be  consulted.  If  there  are  no  late  books,  one  must  depend 
upon  periodicals  and  encyclopedias.  The  card  catalogue  gives 
the  date  of  publication,  (except  when  the  book  has  no  date, 
abbreviated  "n.  d."),  and  one  may  eliminate  many  titles  without 
even  examining  the  books.  The  date  of  publication,  however, 
is  sometimes  misleading.  Some  publishers  issue  new  editions 
from  old  plates  without  revision.  It  is  always  best  in  case  of 
doubt  to  look  in  the  book  itself  for  the  date  of  copyright,  or  the 
date  of  the  author's  preface.  Late  books  are  indispensable  not 
only  in  science,  but  in  economics,  sociology,  and  such  branches 
of  government  as  municipal  administration  and  nominating 
systems.  In  these  latter  fields,  however,  not  all  old  books  are 
to  be  disregarded.  Some  knowledge  of  the  subject,  gained 
through  the  encyclopedias,  will  enable  one  to  decide  how  old  a 
book  may  be  without  rendering  it  obsolete.  In  history,  litera- 
ture, biography,  philosophy,  and  similar  departments,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  date  has  much  less  significance.  New  books  or 
new  editions  have  a  certain  presumption  in  their  favor  here,  as 
everywhere  else;  but  the  standard  works  may  be  twenty-five, 
fifty,  a  hundred  years  old.  In  a  matter  like  literary  biography, 
fpr  example,  the  authoritative  "life  and  letters"  is  often  issued 
within  a  few  years  of  an  author's  death,  and  can  never  be  super- 
seded, though  later  biographers  may  correct  its  errors  and  sup- 
plement its  deficiencies. 

Authorship  also  helps  in  selection.  As  between  the  book  of  a 
great  scholar  who  has  added  to  human  knowledge,  and  a  com- 
piler who  has  popularized  other  men's  discoveries,  the  first 
should  nearly  always  be  chosen.  It  will  be  harder  reading,  but 
more  worth  while.  The  student  will  get  enough  popularizing 
in  his  encyclopedia  and  periodical  reading.     He  should  consult, 


132  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

if  possible,  at  least  one  original  source.  As  between  an  English 
or  American  book  on  the  one  hand  and  a  translation  from  some 
foreign  language  on  the  other,  the  choice  will  depend  upon  the 
subject.  It  is  often  valuable  to  compare  the  treatment  of  a 
historical  or  economic  subject  by  writers  of  different  nations. 
On  controversial  subjects,  or  controversial  aspects  of  matters 
upon  which  there  is  general  agreement,  it  is  important  to  read 
something  on  each  side;  but  subjects  primarily  controversial 
should  hardly  be  undertaken  by  freshmen  still  engaged  in  the 
study  of  exposition.  As  between  two  writers  neither  of  whom 
is  an  original  investigator,  one  can  sometimes  decide  which  is 
apparently  the  more  prominent  or  more  experienced  by  examin- 
ing the  sketches  of  the  two  men  in  Who's  Who  in  America  or 
American  Men  of  Science. 

These  are  principles  of  selection  that  may  be  appHed  upon 
inspection  of  the  catalogue,  without  looking  at  the  books  them- 
selves. Additional  help  in  determining  which  books  one  shall 
read  may  be  had  by  choosing  the  most  promising  titles  and 
calling  for,  or  hunting  up,  half  a  dozen  or  more  books,  to  be 
examined  for  their  relative  convenience  in  study.  Typograph- 
ical form  is  worth  considering.  A  book  which  has  no  index  and 
no  table  of  contents  is  a  hard  book  to  use ;  it  may  be  indispensable, 
nevertheless,  if  it  is  clearly  the  most  authoritative.  Books 
which  divide  their  chapters  into  sections  with  suitable  subheads, 
which  print  quoted  matter  in  a  smaller  type,  which  contain  maps, 
diagrams,  or  helpful  illustrations,  are  obviously  more  convenient 
for  use  than  those  which  lack  such  features.  Well  printed  books, 
with  clear  type  properly  spaced  between  the  lines,  are  to  be 
preferred  to  those  which  strain  the  eyesight.  In  these  and  other 
ways  a  brief  examination  of  five  or  ten  books  will  help  one  to 
select  the  two  or  three  on  which  most  of  one's  time  should  be 
spent. 

99.  Guide-books  to  the  best  books.  In  determining  which 
of  all  the  books  catalogued  are  the  best,  not  only  the  principles 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       133 

above  stated  may  be  applied,  but  also  in  some  cases  the  expert 
opinions  of  scholars.  The  bibliographies  attached  to  the 
articles  in  the  encyclopedias,  for  example,  are  of  much  value  in 
this  connection.  Some  of  the  books  there  recommended  may 
not  be  in  the  Ubrary,  but  such  as  are  to  be  found  have  a  con- 
siderable presumption  in  their  favor.  Another  way  of  deter- 
mining which  books  are  the  best  is  to  give  due  weight  to  the 
collective  judgment  of  librarians,  as  expressed  in  a  series  of 
printed  catalogues  published  by  the  American  Library  Asso- 
ciation. This  series,  enumerating  thousands  of  books  with 
brief  comments  and  summaries,  is  as  follows: 

The  A.  L.  A.  Catalogue:  8,000  Volumes  for  a  Popular  Library 

(Published  in  1904  as  a  government  document;  commonly  known 
simply  as  The  A.  L.  A.  Catalogue) 

The  A.  L.  A.  Catalogue:  1904-1911  (A  supplement  to  the  original  work, 
published  in  1912  by  the  American  Library  Association  Publishing 
Board) 

The  A.  L.  A.  Book  List  (annual  bound  volumes,  from  1905  to  the  present 
time,  of  a  monthly  periodical  Usting  the  best  books  of  the  month 
with  brief  comments.  The  supplement  above  named  is  more 
convenient  for  the  years  1905-1911.) 

It  is  true  that  the  A.  L.  A.  Catalogue  and  the  Book  List  have 
been  compiled  primarily  for  the  information  of  librarians  in 
ordering  books  rather  than  of  readers  in  choosing  them ;  but  the 
original  work,  for  older  books,  and  the  supplement  and  cut  rent 
issues  for  books  of  the  past  few  years,  are  nevertheless  valuable 
to  students.  In  particular  it  is  desirable  that  readers  desiring 
to  keep  up  with  the  best  things  in  recent  literature,  and  unable 
in  any  other  way  to  distinguish  the  good  from  the  worthless, 
should  occasionally  look  through  the  recent  numbers  of  the 
Book  List,  making  memoranda  for  future  reading.  The  starred 
books  are  not  necessarily  the  best,  but  are  those  which  even  small 
libraries  are  advised  to  purchase. 

Another  publication  useful  in  selecting  recent  books  is  the  .Boo^ 


134  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Review  Digest,  a  monthly,  cumulated  at  the  end  of  each  year, 
which  selects  extracts  from  the  most  representative  re\iews  and 
criticisms  of  new  books.  The  A.  L.  A.  Catalogue,  Book  List, 
and  Book  Review  Digest,  being  much  used  by  librarians,  may  be 
shelved  elsewhere  than  in  the  reading-room,  but  may  ])e  exam- 
ined upon  reciuest.  They  are  almost  the  only  means,  aside  from 
personal  advice,  of  finding  out  what  recent  books  are  worth 
reading;  for  single  book-reviews  and  book-advertisements  are 
often  misleading  to  the  reader  who  depends  on  them  for  guidance. 
In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  repeat  that  the  annual  articles  on 
literature  in  the  Nrd)  International  Year  Book  and  the  American 
Year  Book,  already  mentioned,  are  another  valuable  means  of 
selecting  the  titles  of  the  best  books  in  any  special  field  pub- 
lished during  a  particular  year. 

100.  Public  documents.  On  all  topics  in  American  history, 
law,  politics,  finance,  manufactures  and  commerce,  agriculture, 
labor  questions,  education,  and  many  branches  of  science,  the 
use  of  public  documents  is  important.  The  federal  go\'ernment 
issues  vast  numbers  of  legislative  and  executi\-e  documents, 
department  and  bureau  reports,  which  are  often  the  most 
valuable  material  in  the  entire  library  in  the  special  fields  which 
they  cover.  Particularly  useful  are  the  bulletins  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education  and  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  State 
documents  are  also  important  in  preparing  for  debates  on  matters 
of  state  legislation  or  administration. 

Libraries  have  their  own  ways  of  shelving  and  cataloguing 
public  documents.  The  card  catalogue,  of  course,  indexes  them 
under  the  proper  subject.  Nevertheless,  so  great  is  their 
number,  and  so  complex  their  classification,  that  in  many  cases 
serious  and  conscientious  students  attempting  to  use  them  for  a 
special  purpose  give  up  in  despair.  Much  of  the  difficulty 
surrounfHng  the  subject  has  been  lessened  by  the  new  Checklist 
oj  United  States  Public  Documents,  1789-1909,  and  the  annually 
cumulated  volumes  of  the  Monthly  Catalogue  of  United  States 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       135 

Documents,  issued  since  1895  by  the  Superintendent  of  Docu- 
ments. This  latter  series  is  fully  indexed,  and  forms  a  real  guide 
to  the  use  of  public  documents  issued  in  recent  years.  In  using 
public  documents,  more  than  anywhere  else,  the  student  needs 
the  aid  of  a  competent  and  industrious  reference  librarian. 
Undergraduates  should  do  for  themselves  whatever  they  can, 
but  they  are  Hkely  now  and  then  to  come  to  the  end  of  their 
resources.     That  is  the  time  to  ask  intelligent  questions. 

101.  Library  of  Congress  bibliographies.  Among  the  most 
valuable  public  documents  for  library  use  are  tlie  special  bib- 
Uographical  Usts  issued  by  the  Library  of  Congress.  These  are 
catalogued  under  "United  States  — Library  of  Congress."  On 
any  such  subject  as  the  Philippines,  international  arbitration, 
immigration,  child  labor,  municipal  ownership,  workingmen's  in- 
surance, there  will  be  found  a  Library  of  Congress  bibliography, 
usually  entitled  List  of  Books  on  —  or  Select  references  relating 
to  — .  There  is  one  on  books  dealing  with  the  World  War;  one 
on  the  Monroe  doctrine;  one  on  economic  reconstruction. 
Indeed,  almost  any  topic  in  the  fields  of  politics,  economics,  and 
social  science  can  be  found  treated  in  one  of  these  lists.  Their 
disadvantage  for  students  working  on  limited  time  is  that  they 
contain  so  many  titles  of  books  and  pamphlets  not  found  in  the 
ordinary  library;  but  for  thorough  research  they  are  of  the 
utmost  value.  A  reader  desiring  to  use  one  of  these  bibli- 
ographies, the  title  of  which  has  been  ascertained  from  the 
catalogue,  should  make  written  appHcation  for  it  on  a  call  slip, 
since  they  are  not  often  kept  on  open  shelves,  and  being  thin 
books  are  not  readily  found. 

102.  Indexes  to  periodicals.  Every  large  library  has  hun- 
dreds of  bound  volumes  of  magazines,  often  complete  sets  run- 
ning back  for  many  years.  These  contain  much  valuable 
material  never  incorporated  into  books.  Moreover,  the  un- 
bound current  numbers  of  magazines  for  the  past  few  months, 
still  on  the  magazine  stands  and  shelves,  are  the  only  source  — 


136  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

aside  from  newspapers  —  for  subjects  too  recent  to  have  found 
their  place  in  year  books  or  other  bound  volumes.  Students 
looking  up  subjects  dealmg  with  the  past  should  consult  some  of 
the  older  periodical  hterature  in  addition  to  other  sources; 
and  for  the  investigation  of  current  topics  one  must  rely  chiefly 
on  current  magazines.  For  both  purposes  it  is  necessary  to 
have  some  knowledge  of  the  standard  indexes  to  periodicals. 
Since  1900  there  has  been  considerable  activity  among  the 
publishers  in  meeting  the  increasing  demand  for  such  indexes, 
and  to  enumerate  all  of  them  would  only  prove  confusing.  In 
the  following  explanation  simplicity  is  aimed  at  by  omitting  some 
indexes  that  overlap  those  named,  and  some  others  cataloguing 
special  classes  of  periodicals  of  limited  interest. 

For  all  periodicals  before  iqoo  the  standard  index  is  Poole's 
Iftdcx  to  Periodical  Literature.  It  indexes  in  six  volumes  the 
contents  of  many  English  and  American  magazines  (190  in  the 
latest  volume)  from  1802  to  1882;  1882-18S7;  18S7-1892;  1892- 
1896;  1897-1902;  1902-1906.  For  magazines  beginning  with 
1900  the  best  index  is  the  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature. 
Volume  V  of  Poole  and  the  1900- 1904  volume  of  the  Readers' 
Guide  overlap.  There  is,  however,  an  abridged  edition  of  Poole, 
the  first  volume  of  which  ends  with  the  close  of  the  year  1899, 
the  point  at  which  the  Readers'  Guide  begins.  If  this  edition  is 
used,  there  is  no  duplication;  but  the  abridged  Poole,  of  course, 
covers  a  much  smaller  number  of  periodicals.  Notice  the  rule, 
therefore,  for  using  these  indexes  in  order  to  avoid  duplication: 

(i)  For  magazines  before  1900,  Poole's  Index  to  Periodical 
Literature,  volumes  I  to  V,  or  the  abridgment  in  one  volume. 

(2)  For  magazines  beginning  with  1900,  the  Readers'  Guide 
to  Periodical  Literature:  several  large  volumes,  each  combining 
the  titles  of  four  or  five  years,  as  follows:  1900- 1904;  1905- 1909; 
1010-1914;  1915-1918;  etc.;  single  annual  volumes  since  the  last 
cumulation;  and  the  unbound  paper-covered  current  issue.  The 
Readers'  Guide  is  published  monthly,  and  at  the  end  of  each 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       137 

quarter  a  cumulative  number  is  issued  containing  in  one  alphabet 
all  the  titles  for  the  preceding  months  of  the  year.  The  current 
number,  usually  kept  in  a  file  binder,  is  of  course  the  one  most 
in  demand  among  readers  investigating  current  topics.  One 
of  several  ways  in  which  the  Readers'  Guide  is  an  improvement 
on  Poole  is  that  it  is  really  a  dictionary  catalogue  combining 
authors,  titles,  and  subjects.  One  can  find  in  it,  for  example, 
all  the  articles  written  by  or  about  a  certain  author  during  the 
year.     This  is  often  convenient  in  literary  work. 

In  addition  to  the  103  periodicals  and  volumes  of  reports, 
proceedings,  etc.  indexed  in  the  Readers'  Guide,  a  large  number 
of  other  periodical  sources  can  be  drawn  upon  through  other 
indexes,  here  mentioned  by  way  of  supplementary  information. 
The  indexes  mentioned  in  this  paragraph,  unlike  Poole's  and  the 
Readers'  Guide,  are  more  or  less  special  or  technical,  and  need 
not  be  used  in  ordinary  reference  work  by  college  freshmen. 
They  are,  however,  most  important  in  studying  the  special 
classes  of  subjects  which  they  cover,  and  every  student  should 
know  where  to  find  them  when  the  need  arises.  First  among 
these  additional  helps  in  using  periodicals  is  an  index  begun  in 
1907  as  the  Readers'  Guide  Supplement,  now  known  as  the 
International  Index  to  Periodicals.  In  this  index,  published 
bimonthly,  there  are  listed  articles  in  197  periodicals  and  publica- 
tions of  learned  societies,  including  many  published  in  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  It  is  useful  largely  in  somewhat 
advanced  research.  Three  examples  of  technical  indexes  cover- 
ing special  classes  of  periodicals  are  the  Industrial  Arts  Index, 
the  Agricultural  Index,  and  the  Engineering  Index.  Next 
among  these  supplementary  guides  to  periodical  literature  may 
be  mentioned  the  monthly  bulletins,  cumulated  annually,  of  the 
Public  Affairs  Information  Service.  On  many  topics  in  muni- 
cipal government,  social  reforms,  domestic  and  foreign  industry 
and  commerce,  these  are  more  comprehensive  than  any  of  the 
indexes  previously   named.     They   cover,   however,   not  only 


138  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

current  periodicals  and  reports  of  societies  and  corporations,  but 
many  pamphlets  and  other  kinds  of  material  not  likely  to  be 
found  in  an  ordinary  library.  In  using  any  of  the  indexes  named 
in  this  paragraph  the  student  should  remember  that  before 
spending  much  time  in  noting  titles  taken  from  them  he  should 
ascertain,  from  the  library  catalogue  or  from  the  reference 
librarian,  which  of  the  periodicals  indexed  are  accessible  in  the 
library. 

The  last  supplementary  guide  to  current  periodicals  which 
can  be  named  here  is  the  New  York  Times  Index,  published 
quarterly  since  1913.  The  value  of  this  is  not  limited  to  libraries 
in  which  complete  files  of  the  Ti7ncs  are  preserved;  for  it  serves 
to  fix  the  exact  date  of  any  important  recent  event,  a  newspaper 
account  of  which  may  then  be  looked  for  in  the  files  of  any 
accessible  newspaper.  Sometimes  in  looking  up  a  current  topic 
little  or  nothing  can  be  found  in  the  Readers'  Guide,  because 
weekly  and  monthly  periodicals  have  passed  over  the  matter 
with  slight  mention;  newspapers  must  then  be  consulted,  and 
the  Times  Index  saves  the  trouble  of  searching  the  files  for  weeks 
or  months  before  and  after  the  supposed  date.  In  any  case, 
suflSciently  important,  in  which  back  numbers  of  newspapers  are 
inaccessible  at  the  library  because  of  delays  in  binding,  or  for 
other  reasons,  complete  files  can  usually  be  consulted  on  request 
at  the  office  of  a  local  newspaper. 

103.  Relative  value  of  periodicals.  In  selecting  from  the 
numerous  magazine  articles  on  one's  subject  indexed  in  the  works 
above  named  a  few  to  be  read  in  preparation  for  an  essay  or 
report,  there  is  much  need  for  discrimination.  Date  and  author- 
ship have  as  much  importance  here  as  in  the  selection  of  books; 
but  the  first  volume  of  Poole's  Index  does  not  include  authors' 
names,  so  that  for  the  okier  magazine  literature  before  1882  we 
have  as  a  basis  of  selection  only  the  title  of  the  article,  and 
such  weight  as  can  be  given  to  the  character  of  the  magazine  in 
which  it  appeared.     In  deciding  from  the  index  which  bound 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       139 

volumes  of  magazines  are  to  be  called  for,  or  hunted  up  on  the 
shelves,  it  is  well  to  give  preference  to  articles  published  in  the 
more  serious  and  scholarly  periodicals.  The  Atlantic  Monthly, 
North  American  Review,  Forum,  Survey,  Yale  Review,  Nine- 
teenth Century,  Edinburgh  Review,  Contemporary  Review,  Amer- 
ican Economic  Review,  American  Historical  Review,  Political 
Science  Quarterly,  are  examples  of  the  kind  of  periodicals  most 
likely  to  include  valuable  material.  The  illustrated  magazines 
on  the  other  hand,  though  occasionally  containing  admirable 
sketches  of  travel,  biography,  popular  science,  are  in  these  days 
given  over  mostly  to  fiction,  pictures,  and  advertisements.  We 
read  most  of  them  for  entertainment  rather  than  for  education. 
Ultimately  the  best  things  that  appear  in  them,  in  the  way  of 
biographical  serials  and  literary  essays,  are  collected  in  book 
form.  Magazines,  however,  change  their  character  from  time 
to  time;  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  the  Century,  or  the 
Outlook  of  the  past  generation  could  hardly  be  judged  by  their 
contemporary  representatives. 

Readers  who  depend  much  on  periodicals,  whether  of  the  past 
or  of  the  present,  for  their  principal  sources  of  information  are 
likely  to  do  superficial  work;  but  as  adjuncts  and  supplements 
to  the  study  of  books  the  magazines  cannot  be  ignored.  It  is 
well  to  form  the  habit  of  looking  over  each  month  the  tables  of 
contents  of  many  current  magazines,  in  order  to  acquire  a  useful 
knowledge  of  the  special  field  of  each.  In  a  library  in  which 
readers  are  admitted  to  the  shelves  containing  bound  magazines, 
is  it  of  course  possible  to  base  one's  choice  of  material  to  be  read 
upon  a  cursory  inspection  of  articles  covering  many  of  the  titles 
collected  from  the  indexes;  lacking  this  convenience,  one  must 
use  one's  judgment  in  selecting  a  few  titles  to  be  called  for,  and 
not  be  disappointed  if  now  and  then  one  draws  a  blank, 

104.  Correct  form  for  a  select  bibliography  of  periodical 
references.  Notes  of  selected  titles  of  magazine  articles,  made 
while  consulting  the  indexes  to  periodicals,  should  be  in  one  or 


I40  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  other  of  the  alternative  forms  suggested  for  notes  of  book 
titles  in  section  97.  Whether  on  separate  cards,  or  on  successive 
lines  of  a  sheet  ruled  in  vertical^  columns,  the  data  to  be  recorded 
are  similar.  A  somewhat  different  arrangement,  however,  may 
be  more  convenient,  such  as  the  following:  (i)  in  accordance 
with  the  order  followed  in  the  indexes,  the  title  of  the  article; 
(2)  the  author's  name  and  initials,  if  stated;  (3)  the  abbreviated 
name  of  the  periodical;  (4)  the  volume  and  page;  and  (5)  if  given 
in  the  index,  the  date.  Whether  the  date  recorded  shall  be 
merely  the  year  (to  indicate  the  relative  timeliness  of  the  article), 
or  the  month  as  well  (as  an  aid  in  finding  the  article,  especially  in 
unbound  magazines),  depends  on  circumstances.  For  the  older 
titles,  before  1900,  taken  from  Poole,  the  date  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained from  the  index  entry  itself.  To  refer  to  the  "Chronolo- 
gical Conspectus"  at  the  beginning  of  each  volume  of  Poole,  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  date  from  the  number  of  the  volume, 
would  not  be  worth  the  labor,  except  in  the  case  of  an  article 
which  one  has  decided  to  read.  For  titles  taken  from  the 
Readers^  Guide,  however,  the  date  should  be  included;  and  dates 
of  older  articles  should  be  noted  whenever  the  article  itself  is 
examined. 

Note  that  in  a  bibliographical  list  containing  many  titles, 
either  of  books  or  of  articles  in  magazines,  it  is  not  necessary  for 
the  student  to  underline  all  hook  titles  and  quote  all  the  titles 
of  magazine  articles,  as  is  customary  in  writing  such  titles  in 
connected  discourse.  But  a  book  title  or  title  of  a  magazine 
occurring  in  the  text  of  an  essay  should  be  underlined,  and  the 
title  of  an  article,  or  a  chapter  in  a  book,  should  in  that  case  be 
quoted.  The  usual  rules  of  capitalization  should  be  followed  in 
copying  titles,  rather  than  the  special  "library  style"  in  which 
small  letters  are  used  for  all  words  after  the  first,  except  proper 
nouns  and  proper  adjectives.  This"librarystyle"  has  not  come 
into  general  use  in  l^ook  printing,  though  some  authors  follow  it 
in  citations  occurring  in  footnotes. 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       141 

105.  Distribution  of  time  in  reading.  For  the  ordinary 
essay  or  report  one  cannot  spend  a  great  many  Lours  in  pre- 
liminary reading.  The  compilation  of  titles  from  the  catalogue 
and  from  the  indexes  to  periodicals  has  already  consumed  a 
considerable  amount  of  time  —  time  well  spent,  not  wasted,  if 
it  has  succeeded  in  familiarizing  the  student  with  the  machmery 
of  the  library.  But  suppose  that  there  remain  only  ten  hours, 
spread  out  over  ten  days  or  so,  during  which  one  must  do  all  the 
reading  and  take  all  the  notes  necessary  for  a  good  essay.  How 
should  the  time  be  apportioned  in  oider  to  get  the  best  results? 

Roughly  speaking,  one  hour  on  the  encyclopedias  (several 
articles) ;  six  hours  divided  between  the  two  best  books  that  one 
can  fmd  dealing  most  fully  with  the  subject;  one  hour  spent  in 
looking  up  brief  passages  in  other  books;  two  hours  on  the  maga- 
zines. Such  a  proportion  would  have  to  be  altered  in  many 
cases  according  to  circumstances,  but  it  indicates  in  general  the 
kind  of  selective  reading  and  judicious  skipping  that  every 
student  should  learn  to  practice  in  tasks  of  compilation.  The 
things  to  be  avoided,  as  already  mentioned,  are  (i)  too  much 
time  spent  on  encyclopedias;  (2)  too  much  time  spent  on  a  single 
book,  even  though  it  be  the  best;  (3)  too  much  time  spent  on 
magazine  articles.  On  the  other  hand,  no  haste  ought  to  be 
permitted  to  interfere  with  understanding  what  one  reads,  or 
with  the  collection  of  illustrative  material  sufficient  to  clothe 
the  dry  bones  of  the  subject  with  flesh  and  blood. 

106.  How  to  take  library  notes.  In  order  to  collect  library 
material  for  an  essay  based  upon  reading  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
systematic  method  of  note-taking.  Much  time  and  effort  will  be 
wasted  if  one  takes  such  notes  in  just  the  same  way  that  notes  are 
taken  on  ordinary  collateral  reading  for  lecture  courses.  The 
natural  procedure  in  this  latter  case  is  to  head  a  page  in  the  note- 
book with  the  title  of  the  book  to  be  read,  and  then  to  enter  on 
that  and  succeeding  pages  all  the  material  selected  from  the  pas- 
sage read.     Notes  preparatory  to  an  essay,  on  the  other  hand. 


142 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


should  preferably  be  topically  arranged  and  classified  at  the  time 
of  writing;  and  the  only  way  to  do  this  is  to  have  a  separate 
card  or  page  for  each  distinct  division  of  the  subject.  Cards  of 
the  size  used  in  library  catalogues  (three  by  five  inches),  pur- 
chasable at  any  commercial  stationer's,  are  excellent  for  library 
notes.  Somewhat  less  desirable,  but  still  usable,  is  a  small  loose- 
leaf  notebook,  of  pocket  size.  In  either  case,  only  one  side  of 
the  card  or  sheet  should  be  written  on.  The  object  of  using  a 
small  size  is  to  insure  the  placing  of  but  one  subdivision  of  the 
subject  on  each  card,  and  to  promote  con\'enience  in  handling 
the  material. 

If  cards  have  been  used  in  making  the  select  bibliography  of 
the  subject  (section  97),  these  same  cards  may  be  used  for  the 
first  note  taken  from  each  book ;  subsequent  notes  from  the  same 
book  to  be  on  other  cards,  headed  with  a  short  title  of  the  book, 
or  merely  with  the  author's  name,  together  with  the  page 
number.  A  suggested  printed  form  of  heading  for  such  cards 
combining  the  necessary  bibliographical  data  with  a  suitable 
caption  for  the  substance  of  the  note,  is  as  follows: 


Subject: 
Subdivision: 

Autlior: 
Title: 

Library  call-number  of  book 
or  name  of  periodical 

Vol.         P.              Date 

Such  cards  would  be  filled  out  as  in  the  following  examples: 


Subject: 

Medieval  London 
Subdivision : 

London  Bridge 


Author: 

Gardiner,  S.  R. 
Title: 

StudenVs  History  of 

England 


Ubrary  call-number  of  book 
or   name  of   periodical: 


\'ol. 


942 
P. 

272 


Date 
1895 


London  Bridge  begun  iij6,  finished  1209. 
Replaced  older  wooden  bridge. 
Begun  by  priest,  Pder  Colechurch. 
B II  ilt  by  gifts  of  leading  men. 
Houses  built  on  bridge,  rrntah  used  for  repairs. 


HOW  TO  USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       143 


Subject: 
Medieval  London 

Author: 
Gardiner,  J. 

Library  call-number  of  book 
or  name  of  periodical: 

Acad. 

Subdivision : 

Title: 

Vol.                P.              Date 

Charterhouse 

Martyrs  of  the  Charter- 
house 

35           405          1889 

Charterhouse  originally  a  Carthusian  monastery. 

Carthusian  discipline  most  severe  of  all  orders. 

Last  prior,  John  Houghton,  martyred  under  Henry  VIII. 

Other  Carthusians  martyred  in  same  year,  1535. 

A  blank  card  without  printed  heading  would  have  to  be  some- 
what less  compactly  arranged,  perhaps  as  follows  (omitting  the 
main  subject,  and  using  merely  the  subdivision  as  a  caption): 


Westminster  Abbey 

Lucas,  E.  v.:  A  Wanderer  in  London.     191 1. 


914.21 
pp.  281-288 


Monuments  to  statesmen  and  poets  mixed  in  with  those  of  obscure  men. 
Tombs  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Charles  II,    Elizabeth,  the  princes  murdered 

in  the  Tower. 
Chapel  of  Henry  V 1 1  most  beautiful  part  of  Abbey.     Wonderful  carving  in 

wood  and  stone. 
Chapel  of  Edward  the  Confessor  behind  the  altar,  oldest  part.  Tombs  of  Edward 

I,  Queen  Eleanor,  Edward  the  Confessor,  Henry  V.     Coronation  chair 

kept  here. 


Essential  to  the  success  of  this  method  is  the  heading  of  each 
card  with  some  brief  caption  summarizing  the  principal  subject 
of  the  note.  This  caption  will  serve  as  a  guide,  so  that  further 
material  on  the  same  point  found  elsewhere  in  the  book  or  article 
can  be  placed  on  the  same  card.  If  there  is  no  room  for  such 
additional  material,  another  card  with  the  same  heading  will  be 
written.  A  memorandum  or  quotation  from  a  single  passage 
too  long  to  be  written  on  a  single  card  may  be  continued  on  a 
second  card,  headed  by  the  same  title  followed  by  " —  2,"  and 


144  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 

fastened  to  the  first  by  a  wire  paper-clip.  Cards,  used  in  this 
way,  each  with  its  caption,  and  written  only  on  one  side,  will  be 
found  far  more  convenient  than  most  other  forms  of  notes  when 
the  work  of  compilation  is  complete.  They  can  be  sorted  out 
and  arranged  in  groups  or  columns  on  a  table,  suggesting  in 
themselves  a  preliminary  outline  of  the  subject.  Only  in  case 
the  student  is  unable  to  write  the  small,  neat,  yet  legible  hand 
that  is  requisite  for  cards  will  it  be  preferable  to  use  loose-leaf 
[)ages  of  larger  size. 

In  the  form  of  the  notes,  abbreviations  may  be  freely  used  to 
save  time  and  space;  important  words  may  be  underlined;  and 
serial  points,  even  though  not  numbered  in  the  text,  may  be 
written  on  separate  short  lines  and  designated  as  i,  2,  3,  etc. 
Such  devices  assist  in  the  process  of  rapidly  but  accurately 
summarizing  in  one's  own  words  the  substance  of  the  text. 
Whenever  sentences  or  phrases  are,  for  some  special  reason, 
copied  verbatim  from  the  book,  quotation  marks  should  always 
be  placed  in  the  notes,  both  before  and  after  the  copied  matter. 
This  precaution  is  to  guard  against  inadvertent  use  of  borrowed 
material  as  one's  own,  due  to  failure  to  mark  it  as  such  in  the 
notes. 

107.  Thou  shalt  not  steal.  A  final  word,  at  the  close  of  this 
chapter  on  the  i)roper  use  of  the  library,  may  well  take  the  form 
of  the  eighth  commandment.  To  copy  without  quotation 
marks,  or  equivalent  acknowledgment,  the  words  of  another  and 
to  pass  them  off  as  one's  own  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  plain 
stealing.  The  polite  name  for  it  is  plagiarism,  which  means 
kidnapping  (see  dictionary).  That  when  discovered  it  will  of 
course  lead  to  loss  of  all  credit  for  the  whole  piece  of  work,  and 
probably  to  other  discipline  in  addition,  is  not  the  whole  of  the 
matter.  A  Httle  consideration  should  show  any  intelligent 
person  that  a  supposedly  original  essay  which  is  only  a  mosaic  of 
other  people's  words  can  in  no  way  help  one  to  learn  to  write 
well.     Time  so  spent  is  time  worse  than  wasted;  for  the  worst  of 


HOW  TO   USE  A  REFERENCE  LIBRARY       145 

all  cheats  is  the  cheat  who  cheats  himself.  A  college  course  in 
composition  offers  to  every  student,  good  and  bad,  wise  and 
foolish  alike,  a  few  chances  to  learn  a  little  about  the  difficult 
art  of  writing  English.  One's  own  work,  honestly  done,  may 
sometimes  fail  of  adequate  recognition,  and  one  may  feel  dis- 
appointed, aggrieved  perhaps,  at  the  fancied  injustice.  But 
such  a  writer  retains  at  least  the  respect  of  his  teacher,  of  his 
classmates,  and  of  himself.  The  cheat  will  sooner  or  later  lose 
all  three. 

One.Hundred  Subjects  for  Essays  Based  on  Reading 

1.  Banking  in  Medieval  Europe 

2.  The  Inns  of  Old  England 

3.  Prehistoric  Man 

4.  Communistic  Experiments  in  America 

5.  Tenement  House  Reform 

6.  Safety  in  Modem  Railroading 

7.  Financial  History  of  the  American  Revolution 

8.  The  Liquor  Traffic  in  Great  Britain 

9.  Agriculture  in  Ancient  Egypt 

10.  The  Nationalist  Movement  in  India 

11.  Medieval  Magic 

12.  History  of  the  Swastika 

13.  Celtic  Notions  of  the  Other  World 

14.  The  Jukes  Family 

15.  Old  Age  Pensions 

16.  Greek  Coins 

17.  The  Ice  Age  in  North  America 

18.  William  Morris's  Kelmscott  Press 

19.  Abolitionists  before  the  Civil  War 

20.  Utopian  Commonwealths 

21.  The  CliEf-DweUers 

22.  Cooperative  Stores  in  England 

23.  The  Gypsies 

24.  The  Ku  Klux  Klan,  Old  and  New 

25.  The  Hague  Conference 

26.  Persian  Poetry 

27.  Japanese  Prints 


146  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

28.  The  Legend  of  El  Dorado 

29.  The  Damming  of  the  Nile 

30.  Icelandic  Literature 

31.  Anti-Semitism  in  the  Middle  Ages 

32.  Modern  Scandinavian  Music 

33.  Origin  of  the  Arthurian  Legends 

34.  The  History  of  Christmas 

35.  Ibsen's  Influence  on  Recent  Drama 

36.  Heretical  Mohammedan  Sects 

37.  The  History  of  Wood  Engraving 

38.  Negro  Education  in  the  South 

39.  The  Religions  of  China 

40.  Latin-American  Literature 

41.  Old  Chinese  Porcelain 

42.  Education  in  Modem  Greece 

43.  The  Bohemians 

44.  French  Influence  in  American  History 

45.  ISIoorish  Architecture  in  Spain 

46.  American  Artillery,  1775-1918 

47.  Universities  in  the  Middle  Ages 

48.  The  Pubhc  Library  Movement  in  America 

49.  Early  Civilization  in  Crete 

50.  Medieval  Miracle  Plays 

51.  The  Races  of  Jugo-Slavia 

52.  Canals  as  Competitors  of  Railroads 

53.  Feminism 

54.  The  Evolution  of  the  Electric  D3aiamo 

55.  Yellow  Fever 

56.  Roman  Ruins  in  North  Africa 

57.  American  Political  Parties  before  i860 

58.  Marble  in  Sculpture  and  in  Architecture 

59.  The  Sonata  Form  in  Musical  Composition 

60.  Legal  Education  in  the  United  States 

61.  Prehistoric  Monuments  of  Great  Britain 

62.  The  Cambridge  Group  in  American  Literature 

63.  The  Greek  Religious  Mysteries 

64.  Our  Trade  with  South  America 

65.  Zionism 

66.  Japanese  Control  in  Korea 

67.  The  Work  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office 

68.  The  Psychology  of  Color 


HOW  TO   USE  A   REFERENCE  LIBRARY       147 

69.  Musical  Education  in  the  Public  Schools 

70.  Volcanos 

71.  The  Gallipoli  Campaign 

72.  American  Colonial  Furniture 

73.  The  Effect  of  the  War  on  Chemistry 

74.  English  Costume  in  Shakespeare's  Time 

75.  The  Pipe  Organ 

76.  Reforestation  in  the  United  States 

77.  The  Education  of  Women  in  France  To-Day 

78.  The  History  of  Chess 

79.  American  Sculpture  since  1850 

80.  The  Kingdom  of  the  Hejaz 

81.  Theodore  Roosevelt  as  a  NaturaHst 

82.  The  German  Occupation  of  Belgium 

83.  Australian  Labor  Legislation 

84.  Vitamines 

85.  Conquering  the  Sahara 

86.  Seamen  and  Ships  of  Old  Massachusetts 

87.  The  Work  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey 

88.  Ruined  Cities  of  Central  America 

89.  The  First  Battle  of  the  Marne 

90.  The  Effect  of  War  on  Aviation 

91.  The  Cossacks 

92.  The  Early  History  of  Map-Making 

93.  Atmospheric  Dust 

94.  The  History  and  Theory  of  Perspective 

95.  Roman  Education 

96.  The  Aurora  Boreaiis 

97.  The  Roumanians 

98.  Pan-Germanism 

99.  French  Colonial  Administration 
100.  The  Work  of  Luther  Burbank 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  20.  Study  sections  85-89.  Look  up  in  each  of  the  four 
dictionaries  named  in  section  88  the  words  assigned  by  the  instructor.  Com- 
pare their  etymologies,  definitions,  and  illustrative  examples.  Note  espe- 
cially any  differences  among  them.  Note  the  diacritical  marks  used  by  each 
to  indicate  pronunciation,  as  interpreted  by  the  key  or  table  explaining  such 
marks.     Make  lists  of  the  principal  supplementary  material  found  in  the 


148  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

introduction  and  the  appendix  of  the  New  International  Dictionary  and  the 
New  Standard  Dictionary,  such  as  lists  of  geographical  and  biographical 
names,  tables  of  words  differently  pronounced,  etc.  Examine  the  index 
volumes  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  and  the  Encyclopedia  Americana, 
and  the  Courses  of  Reading  and  Study  pubhshed  as  a  volume  of  the  New 
International  Encyclopedia,  consulting  in  each  some  title  assigned  by  the 
instructor.  Be  prepared  to  state  how  these  indexes  differ,  and  what  is  the 
special  value  of  each. 

Assignment  21.  Study  sections  90-93.  Using  encyclopedias  or  any  of 
the  general  reference  books  named  in  sections  90-93,  find  answers  to  at  least 
half  of  the  questions  in  a  Ust  assigned  by  the  instructor.  Opposite  each 
answer  name  the  book  in  which  you  found  it.  Do  this  work  independently, 
without  asking  or  receiving  assistance  from  any  other  student. 

Assigyiment  22.  Study  sections  94-97.  Select  an  essay  subject  from  the 
list  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  or  from  others  suggested  by  the  instructor. 
You  will  later  be  asked  to  write  on  this  subject  an  essay  based  upon  reading. 
Begin  the  preparation  of  a  bibliography,  copying  from  the  card  catalogue  the 
authors,  titles,  etc.,  of  all  books  dealing  with  the  subject,  and  from  general 
reference  books  the  titles  of  selected  articles,  with  volume  and  page.  Make 
notes  of  this  bibliography  in  one  of  the  forms  suggested  in  section  97.  Keep 
a  memorandum  of  all  the  time  you  spend  on  this  bibliograjihy  in  this  and  the 
following  assignments. 

Assignment  23.  Study  sections  98-101.  Continue  the  preparation  of 
the  bibliography,  following  up  all  cross-references  and  other  clews.  Examine 
some  of  the  books  on  your  subject  in  order  to  determine  which  are  the  best 
for  your  purpose. 

Assignment  24.  Study  sections  102-104.  Make  a  bibliography  of  refer- 
ences in  periodicals  dealing  with  your  subject,  using  as  many  volumes  of 
Poole  and  the  Readers'  Guide  as  can  be  covered  in  the  time  available.  Any 
time  spent  in  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  use  the  indexes  to  periodicals 
should  be  used  in  arranging  and  copying  the  first  part  of  the  bibliography 
dealing  with  book  references. 

Assignment  25.  Hand  in  a  copy  of  the  complete  bibliography,  stating  at 
the  end  how  many  hours  you  have  si)ent  on  it.  Keep  your  original  notes 
of  the  bibliography  for  your  own  use.  Study  sections  105-107.  Begin 
reading  up  the  subject. 


CHAPTER  VII 
EXPOSITION   BASED    ON   READING 

108.     Clearness,  interest,  and  force  make  a  good  essay.    In 

any  kind  of  writing  or  speaking  we  must  first  of  all  make  our- 
selves understood:  we  must  be  clear.  In  order  to  have  an  essay 
read  with  attention  and  pleasure  we  must  be  interesting.  If  we 
expect  to  leave  a  definite  impression  on  the  reader's  mind,  a 
touch  of  the  personality  that  has  shaped  the  material  and  made 
the  dry  bones  live,  we  must  achieve  force. 

There  is  nothing  artificial  or  accidental  about  these  three 
prerequisites  of  success  in  composition;  they  arise  from  the 
nature  of  the  human  mind.  Test  them  by  the  attitude  we  all 
take  toward  a  book  or  a  magazine  article  that  is  recommended 
to  us.  A  few  paragraphs  may  be  enough  for  our  patience,  if 
our  verdict  is,  "I  can't  make  out  what  this  fellow  is  driving  at; 
he  doesn't  seem  to  have  thought  the  thing  out;  it's  all  mixed 
up." 

On  the  other  hand,  an  article  in  an  encyclopedia  is  pretty 
sure  to  be  clear,  but  unlikely  to  be  interesting  to  a  reader  not 
already  attracted  to  the  subject  by  some  motive  outside  the 
article  itself.  "What  has  this  to  do  with  me?"  is  the  challenge 
which  our  rebellious  and  generally  indolent  minds  address  to 
him  who  would  have  an  hour  of  our  time.  If  it  is  an  interview 
he  desires,  we  cannot  always  get  rid  of  him  in  any  easier  way 
than  to  listen;  but  if  he  comes  to  us  in  the  form  of  a  book,  or  a 
dozen  sheets  of  manuscript,  we  can  lay  down  all  that  laboriously 
inscribed  paper  with  the  fatal  verdict,  "It's  dull."  This  we  can 
do  even  if  the  writer  is  clear.    A  pane  of  glass  is  clear,  but  we  do 

149 


I50  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

not  waste  much  time  looking  through  it  unless  there  is  some- 
thing worth  looking  at  on  the  other  side. 

Even  a  composition  which  is  both  clear  and  interesting  may 
win  only  passing  attention  if  at  the  end  we  feel  that  it  lacks 
climax,  ends  weakly,  leaves  the  impression  of  a  colorless  person- 
ality behind  it.  Force  in  writing  or  speaking  is  the  force  of 
personality.  It  is  the  man  speaking  through  that  strange  cipher 
of  the  spirit,  the  alphabet.  If  he  has  force,  we  feel  it.  If  he  has 
brains,  we  know  it.  If  he  believes  in  himself,  and  in  what  he 
has  to  tell,  we  listen  and  remember. 

109.  "Why  should  anybody  read  this?"  It  is  time  to  reverse 
the  question  with  which  we  approached  at  the  outset  the  problem 
of  composition:  the  question  "Why  should  I  write  this?"  Ask 
instead  "Why  should  anybody  read  this?"  Our  self-centered, 
egotistical  interest  demands  clearness,  interest,  force,  from  other 
people  when  they  approach  us  with  something  which  we  are 
at  liberty  to  read,  or  to  leave  alone.  Our  neighbor's  standard  is 
no  lower;  he  will  not  read  anything  but  our  best  —  he  may  not 
even  read  that,  but  at  least  we  have  a  chance  at  him,  one  chance. 
Some  one  smiles  here;  who  expects  anybody  but  the  teacher  to 
read  a  college  essay?  The  teacher  is  paid  for  it.  Is  he?  Who 
pays  him?  No  professorial  salary  could  pay  a  teacher  with  any 
literary  sense  for  reading  some  of  the  rubbish  that  lazy  freshmen 
write.  But  he  is  paid  whenever  he  can  find  two  grains  of  wheat 
hid  in  two  bushels  of  chaff;  he  is  paid  when  he  recognizes  indi- 
viduality trying  to  express  itself,  dawning  intellectual  curiosity 
trying  to  answer,  or  even  to  ask,  the  questions  that  lead  towards 
truth.  "Why  should  anybody  read  this?"  is  not  altogether  a 
meaningless  incjuiry,  even  though  only  an  instructor's  pleasant 
evening  is  to  be  spoiled  by  your  blunders,  or  cheered  by  your 
success.  It  is  well,  however,  always  in  writing  to  use  enough 
imagination  to  fancy  oneself  submitting  the  article  to  a  maga- 
zine for  publication,  or  offering  it  in  competition  for  a  prize. 


EXPOSITION  BASED   ON  READING  151 

There  is  always  a  prize,  even  though  you  have  to  pay  for  it 
yourself :  the  prize  of  just  pride  in  a  hard  job  well  done. 

110.  Exposition  is  more  than  compilation.  Now  that  we  are 
engaged  upon  an  essay  based  on  reading,  it  is  important  to  see 
what  more  must  go  into  the  essay  than  is  taken  from  the  notes. 
Digestion  is  the  word;  assimilation.  Gathering  materials  from 
books  is  called  compilation;  whereas  the  process  of  working  over 
those  materials  into  such  shape  that  the  subject  itself  emerges 
in  a  fresh  and  interesting  form,  because  of  the  writer's  individual 
point  of  view,  and  his  desire  to  attract  a  particular  kind  of  reader, 
leads  to  exposition.  To  expound  is  to  set  forth;  to  free  the  sub- 
ject from  the  dusty  wrappings  of  the  past,  from  ignorance, 
prejudice,  and  indifference;  to  place  it  in  the  sunbeam,  where  it 
will  shine  a  while.  Light  is  what  it  needs.  Whatever,  then, 
you  have  been  reading  about,  you  must  also  think  about;  you 
must  reflect,  for  the  light  is  reflected  light. 

It  is  just  here  that  many  young  writers  miss  the  point  of  good 
writing  based  on  reading.  "It  is-  not  my  own,"  they  say;  "it 
is  all  other  men's  ideas,  and  all  I  can  do  is  to  paraphrase,  to 
substitute  my  poor  words  for  their  good  words.  What's  the 
use?"  This  feeling  of  the  uselessness  of  all  writing  that  does 
not  even  pretend  to  be  original  in  substance  is  natural  enough, 
but  it  is  wrong.  A  writer  who  has  read  extensively  enough  to 
collect  from  five  or  six  sources  an  abundance  of  material  on  his 
subject  has  no  need  to  feel  that  he  can  render  no  useful  service 
by  writing  about  it.  He  can  contribute  at  least  two  elements 
of  value  to  the  reader:  (i)  he  can  save  the  reader's  time,  by 
giving  him  in  two  thousand  words  a  reasonably  accurate  sum- 
mary of  what  was  found  in  ten  or  twenty  thousand;  and  (2)  he 
can  rouse  the  reader's  interest  and  imagination  by  adding  the 
personal  touch,  the  feeling  that  here  is  something  unexpectedly 
modern,  curious,  surprising,  useful  and  full  of  meaning  to  the 
modern  world.  Thus  by  temporarily  substituting  for  the 
original  question  "Why  should  I  write  this?"  another  question. 


152  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

"Why  should  anybody  read  this?"  the  former  question  is  really 
answered  more  adequately  than  before.  I  should  write  it  in 
order  that  some  one  else  may  read  it  with  profit  and  with  plea- 
sure. 

There  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  an  essay  that 
is  merely  a  transcript  of  the  notes  and  one  that  represents  a 
personal  reaction  upon  the  subject.  It  is  like  the  difference 
between  reading  a  museum  catalogue  and  walking  through  the 
museum  beside  an  expert  guide.  The  guide  hurries  us  past 
whole  corridors  of  commonplace  exhibits,  and  then  gives  us  a 
fascinating  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  contents  of  a  single 
case.  He  knows  what  to  leave  out.  In  this  essay  you  are  like 
that  guide.  Your  reader  is  willing  to  be  personally  conducted 
through  the  haunts  of  your  distant  ancestors,  the  prehistoric 
men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age;  or  to  follow  you  to  the  equator  or 
the  pole,  if  you  can  commend  to  his  somewhat  blase  mind  your 
travelers'  tales  of  tropical  jungles  or  arctic  ice.  With  you  he 
will  cheerfully  sw^elter  in  India  or  shiver  in  Siberia,  if  you  can 
only  amuse  him  while  he  journeys.  You  must  keep  him  happy, 
and  curious  to  know  where  you  will  lead  him  next.  He  is  yours 
for  half  an  hour,  if  you  can  keep  him  awake. 

111.  Library  notes  take  the  place  of  the  mental  inventory. 
That  miscellaneous  catalogue  of  one's  ideas  about  a  subject 
which  we  found  it  necessary  to  write  in  Chapters  II  and  IV  is  no 
longer  joossible.  At  that  time  we  were  collecting  from  the 
unexplored  contents  of  our  own  minds  all  the  material  for  com- 
position. On  such  subjects,  however,  as  most  of  those  in  the 
list  at  the  end  of  Chapter  VI  we  had  no  ideas  before  we  began 
to  read ;  or  perhaps  one  idea,  which  we  soon  found  to  be  wrong. 
The  inventory  in  this  case  is  not  of  the  contents  of  the  mind  but 
of  the  notes.  "What  have  I  to  say?"  is  again  the  question; 
apparently  not  so  hard  to  answer  as  in  Chapter  IV,  for  there  is 
plenty  of  material,  probably  too  much.  Selection  comes  first; 
then  arrangement;  then  the  fully  developed  outline;  then  the 


EXPOSITION  BASED  ON  READING  153 

essay  itself.  If  the  notes  have  been  systematically  prepared, 
with  a  caption  of  some  sort  on  every  card  or  page,  the  process 
of  selection  and  arrangement  becomes  relatively  simple. 

112.  Narrowing  down  the  subject.  Readers  who  have  used 
their  time  to  advantage  have  already  discovered  that  every 
subject  in  the  list  is  enough  for  a  book  in  itself.  Every  division 
in  it  is  enough  for  a  chapter  of  five  thousand  words;  and  they 
are  expected  to  limit  themselves  to  two  thousand.  No  wonder 
that  a  first  attempt  to  sketch  out  a  survey  of  such  a  topic  in  a 
dozen  paragraphs  leads  often  to  discouragement.  Most  stu- 
dents who  have  done  the  work  thoroughly  are  likely  to  find  that 
they  have  too  much  material.  This  is  normal,  usual,  desirable. 
Literary  workers  know  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  too  much 
material  in  order  to  have  enough.  Public  speakers  know  that 
a  speech  planned  to  occupy  just  fifteen  minutes  will  be  a  poor 
speech  unless  it  is  condensed  from  material  sufficient  for  twenty 
or  thirty.  This  excess,  then,  that  one  discovers  in  examining 
the  notes  is  to  be  met  by  judicious  selection;  choosing  the  best 
and  leaving  out  everything  else.  But  this  does  not  mean  leaving 
out  the  picturesque  anecdotes,  the  bits  of  description,  the  allu- 
sions and  comparisons  that  are  the  very  life  of  exposition.  It 
means  usually  narrowing  down  the  subject.  Sometimes  this 
requires  altering  the  title;  frequently  it  calls  merely  for  a  sen- 
tence here  and  there  calling  attention  to  aspects  of  the  subjects 
that  are  omitted  or  passed  lightly  over  because  of  lack  of  space. 

For  example,  "Prehistoric  Man"  is  really  a  preposterous  sub- 
ject for  an  essay  of  two  thousand  words;  and  yet  one  would 
not  advise  a  student  to  begin  reading  in  this  field  with  anything 
narrower  as  his  goal.  Somewhere  in  Osborn's  Men  of  the  Old 
Stone  Age  or  the  early  chapters  of  Wells'  Outline  of  History  one 
finally  gets  into  the  spirit  of  the  thing;  one  wanders,  enchanted, 
back  into  those  forgotten  ages  when  (so  they  say}  man  was  trying 
to  learn  how  to  walk  on  his  hind-legs  and  to  use  his  newly  dis- 
covered thumbs.    The  notes  j)ile  up ;  Neanderthal  man  is  recon- 


154  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

structed  from  a  jawbone;  PUhecaiithropus  eredus  struts  proudly- 
through  the  jungles  of  Java;  we  watch  the  cave-dwellers  drawing 
their  pictures  of  mammoths  and  tigers  on  the  walls  of  their 
murky  dens  by  the  glare  of  torches.  Millenniums  roll  by;  it  is 
like  a  colossal  "mo\de"  in  dreamland.  Heedless  of  time  and 
place  we  watch  those  visions,  until  the  gong  sounds  to  close  the 
library.  Fine!  An  evening  gone,  an  evening  gained  forever; 
a  breathless  chase  down  the  abysses  of  a  vanished  world — and 
all  for  what?  Oh,  that  essay!  Yes,  there  is  too  much  to  use. 
But  the  imagination  is  touched  by  the  vastness  of  it,  the  wonder, 
the  mystery  of  it;  and  that  touch  of  imagination  is  everything. 
Now,  in  sober  retrospect,  we  cut  out  without  a  sigh  two-thirds  or 
nine-tenths  of  our  subject  and  plan  an  essay  on  "The  Art  of 
Prehistoric  Man"  or  "The  Human  Cranium:  a  History  of  Civil- 
ization" or  "Was  There  a  Missing  Link?"  or  "The  History  of 
Fire." 

Or,  suppose  a  reader  has  started  out  to  investigate  the  effect 
of  the  World  War  on  chemistry.  He  will  necessarily  read  much 
about  chemical  progress  in  England  and  in  Germany  before  he 
decides  to  limit  his  discussion  to  the  American  acti\-ity  in  this 
field.  He  would  have  had  to  do  this  even  if  he  had  begun  with 
"American"  in  his  title.  Further  on  in  his  reading  he  finds 
that  of  all  the  material  he  is  gathering  the  most  interesting  has 
to  do  with  three  topics:  dye-stuffs;  rare  drugs  and  synthetic 
compounds  first  made  in  this  country  when  the  German  products 
could  no  longer  be  had;  and  poison  gases  and  high  explosives 
used  in  warfare.  According  to  the  scale  on  which  he  has  read, 
and  his  own  command  of  chemical  technology,  he  will  have  to 
decide  now,  after  the  data  are  all  in  hand  for  an  essay  of  five 
thousand  words  on  the  whole  subject,  which  of  two  courses  to 
follow.  He  may  decide  to  write,  in  his  two  thousand  words,  a 
condensed  summary  covering  all  three  of  these  subdivisions; 
or  he  may  choose  one  of  the  three,  plan  to  treat  it  fully,  and 
change  his  title  accordingly. 


EXPOSITION  BASED   ON  READING  155 

Sometimes  the  narrowing  down  of  the  subject  is  purely  chrono- 
logical. A  title  such  as  "American  Artillery,  1775-1918"  leads 
to  reading  which  may  reveal  that  there  is  enough  material  on  the 
artillery  of  a  single  war  to  make  an  essay  better,  because  less 
superficial,  than  the  one  originally  projected.  These  illustrations 
show  how,  even  after  the  reading  is  complete,  it  is  often  a  wise 
step  to  concentrate  upon  a  part  of  the  material.  Occasionally, 
on  the  contrary,  it  will  appear  half  way  through  the  reading  that 
there  is  not  enough  material  accessible  in  the  library  to  make  a 
good  essay.  In  such  a  case  it  is  usually  better  not  to  change  the 
subject  entirely,  but  rather  to  take  a  larger  subject  of  which  the 
topic  already  investigated  becomes  a  part. 

113.  Obvious  divisions  not  always  the  best.  Before  one 
can  begin  the  arrangement  of  the  material,  preliminary  to  making 
an  outline,  there  must  be  some  general  grouping  of  details  into 
large  classes.  Usually  a  chronological  or  mechanical  division 
such  as  first  suggests  itself  should  be  rejected  in  favor  of  one 
arising  directly  out  of  the  subject.  It  is  easy  enough  to  divide 
almost  any  event  or  period  into  causes,  immediate  results,  remote 
results;  to  write  about  a  war  or  a  battle  simply  on  the  basis 
"What  happened  before  it?  What  happened  during  it?  What 
happened  after  it?"  But  these  formal  divisions,  useful  in 
rough  grouping  of  the  notes,  are  not  suitable  for  the  final  outline. 
Something  less  trite  is  needed  for  good  exposition.  To  write 
about  "Greek  Coins,"  for  example,  merely  on  the  chronological 
basis  is  to  divide  the  subject  into  coinage  of  the  earlier  and 
ruder  period,  coinage  of  the  age  of  classic  perfection,  decadent 
coinage.  That  is  to  be  encyclopedic;  to  be  like  the  catalogue  in 
a  museum.  Intelligent,  discriminating  guidance  is  our  aim, 
not  a  dry  list  of  names  and  dates.  We  must  make  the  coins 
give  up  their  secrets ;  and  it  is  no  secret  that  they  are  respectively 
old,  middle,  and  late.  What  the  coins  reveal,  as  to  the  rivalries 
of  old  city-states,  as  to  the  theories  of  economics,  as  to  the 
art  of  sculpture  In  low  relief,  as  to  the  sacred  symbols  of  forgotten 


156  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

faiths —  here  we  must  experiment  with  one  division  after  another 
until  we  find  freshness,  variety,  force. 

As  to  the  number  of  grand  divisions,  it  is  a  help  to  recognize 
that  three  or  four  are  usually  enough  for  an  essay  of  two  thou- 
sand words ;  for,  with  an  added  point  for  introduction  and  another 
for  conclusion,  the  total  is  live  or  six.  More  than  this  may 
interfere  with  unity  and  force.  Any  preliminary  division  which 
seems  to  yield  eight  or  ten  points  of  coordinate  importance  is 
surely  faulty;  the  remedy  is  either  to  narrow  down  the  subject 
or  to  seek  for  some  grouping  of  the  material  in  a  logical  subordi- 
nation which  will  reduce  the  number  of  major  groups. 

114.  Introduction  and  conclusion.  A  relatively  long  essay, 
unlike  short  themes,  needs  an  introductory  and  a  concluding 
paragraph.  Inasmuch  as  these  stand  apart  in  some  measure 
from  the  grand  divisions  of  the  main  body  of  material,  they 
should  be  recognized  in  the  outline  as  distinct  units.  Hence 
the  subject  for  each  must  be  in  mind  before  the  outline  can  be 
completed.  It  is  often  best,  however,  to  work  up  the  central 
portion  of  the  outline  first,  reserving  until  the  last  the  de- 
cision what  point  to  use  for  the  introduction  and  what 
for  the  conclusion.  The  purpose  of  an  introduction  is  to 
attract  interest  to  the  subject.  Hence  it  is  never  desirable  to 
base  the  introductory  paragraph  on  an  abstract  general  state- 
ment, or  a  technical  definition,  or  a  dry  historical  summary. 
Often  the  topic  to  be  sought  for  is  some  point  of  contact  between 
the  subject  and  the  present  age,  or  some  parallel  or  analogy  that 
appeals  to  the  historic  imagination.  A  discussion  of  the  crusades 
might  begin  with  General  Allenby's  entry  into  Jerusalem  on 
December  8,  19 17.  One  could  hardly  write  about  the  Hague 
conferences  without  an  opening  reference  to  the  Peace  Palace 
erected  just  before  the  great  war,  or  to  the  League  of  Nations, 
or  the  Washington  conference  on  disarmament.  The  Ice  Age 
in  North  America  is  a  cold  subject;  but  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States  it  can  be  warmed  up  considerably  at  the  very 


EXPOSITION  BASED   ON  READING  157 

beginning  by  pointing  out  a  glacial  moraine  or  an  old  lake  beach 
in  the  vicinity.  A  paper  on  American  colonial  furniture  might 
begin  with  an  account  of  how  the  ^vriter  became  interested  in  the 
subject  by  discovering  an  old  piece  of  mahogany  and  trying  to 
unravel  its  history.  Whatever  theme  one  chooses,  the  intro- 
duction must  be  concrete,  and  must  lead  up  naturally  to  the 
subject.  Strained  and  far-fetched  introductions  are  worse  than 
none  at  all.  Sometimes  the  best  way  to  begin  is  merely  with  a 
fresh,  striking  definition  of  the  subject  and  an  announcement  of 
a  division  which  promises  an  unusual  treatment. 

A  conclusion  sums  up  the  discussion,  from  a  new  point  of  view; 
or  brings  out  an  aspect  of  the  subject  having  reference  to  the 
present  or  the  future;  or  pays  personal  tribute  to  some  great 
man  whose  figure  stands  out  in  the  development  of  the  essay; 
or  embodies  an  apt  quotation.  Sometimes,  between  two  topics 
suitable  either  for  introduction  or  conclusion,  it  is  hard  to  choose 
which  shall  come  first  and  which  last.  That  which  has  chiefly 
the  quality  of  provoking  curiosity  about  the  subject  may  well 
be  placed  at  the  beginning,  and  that  which  more  evidently 
depends  for  its  full  effect  on  the  preceding  development  of  the 
theme  will  make  a  conclusion.  The  art  of  leaving  off  is  to  stop 
with  sufficient  climax  to  avoid  weakness,  yet  without  drawing 
out  the  discussion  to  the  point  of  diffuseness.  A  conclusion 
should  usually  in  one  way  or  another  sum  up  the  main  line  of 
the  discussion,  and  lead  to  some  corollary  or  other  consequence 
arising  therefrom  which  is  in  itself  significant. 

In  a  chapter  on  "Browning's  Theory  of  Poetry,"  in  his  book 
entitled  Robert  Browning:  How  to  Know  Him,  William  I^yon 
Phelps  sums  up  the  whole  matter  in  this  concluding  paragraph: 

With  the  exception  of  Shakespeare,  any  other  Enghsh  poet  could  now  be 
spared  more  easily  than  Browning.  For,  owing  to  his  aim  in  poetry,  and 
his  success  in  attaining  it,  he  gave  us  much  vital  truth  and  beauty  that  we 
should  seek  elsewhere  in  vain ;  and,  as  he  said  in  the  Epilogue  to  Pacchiarotto, 
the  strong,  heady  wine  of  his  verse  may  become  sweet  in  process  of  time. 


158  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Tyndall  ends  a  chapter  on  "Matter  and  Force"  in  Fragments 
of  Science  with  this  unifying  idea : 

One  fundamental  thought  pervades  all  these  statements:  there  is  one 
tap  root  from  which  they  all  spring.  That  is  the  ancient  maxim  that  out 
of  nothing  nothing  comes;  that  neither  in  the  organic  world  nor  in  the 
inorganic  is  power  produced  without  the  expenditure  of  power;  that  neither 
in  the  plant  nor  in  the  animal  is  there  a  creation  of  force  or  motion.  Trees 
grow,  and  so  do  men  and  horses;  and  here  we  have  new  power  incessantly 
introduced  upon  the  earth.  But  its  source,  as  I  have  already  stated,  is  the 
sun.  It  is  the  sun  that  separates  the  carbon  from  the  oxygen  of  the  carbonic 
acid,  and  thus  enables  them  to  recombine.  Whether  they  recombine  in  the 
furnace  of  the  steam  engine  or  in  the  animal  body,  the  origin  of  the  power 
they  produce  is  the  same.  In  this  sense  we  are  all  "souls  of  fire  and  children 
of  the  sun."  But,  as  remarked  by  Helmholtz,  we  must  be  content  to  share 
our  celestial  pedigree  with  the  meanest  of  living  things. 

115.     Making  the  outline  for  a  long  essay.    Having  decided 

upon  a  good  division,  and  having  perhaps  fixed  upon  a  good  point 
for  an  introduction,  we  are  now  ready  to  write  the  complete 
outline.  Like  the  briefer  outlines  for  short  themes  worked  out 
in  Chapters  II  and  IV,  it  is  to  be  written  in  complete  sentences 
throughout.  Of  course  a  sentence  will  often  run  over  from  the 
main  division  to  the  subdivisions,  in  which  case  the  latter  are 
mere  phrases,  grammatically  a  part  of  the  sentence  in  the  pre- 
ceding line.  The  form  of  the  outline  should  be  the  same  as 
before:  main  divisions  numbered  with  roman  numerals,  of 
which  the  introdtiction  is  I  and  the  first  point  of  the  discussion 
is  II,  the  conclusion  V  or  VI.  Secondary  divisions  are  capital 
letters;  then  come  arable  ntmierals,  then  small  letters:  the  order 
is  I,  A,  I,  a.  One  point  should  be  carefully  noted  in  regard  to 
the  outline:  it  should  contain,  in  brief  summary,  everything  that 
is  to  go  into  the  essay,  especially  illustrations.  The  very  purpose 
of  making  it  so  full  and  detailed  is  to  select  and  arrange  all  the 
material,  not  merely  a  part  of  it.  Consequently  the  outline 
will  cover  a  good  deal  of  space;  perhaps,  because  of  the  white 
space  left  by  indention,  nearly  as  many  pages  as  the  essay  itself. 


EXPOSITION  BASED  ON  READING  159 

This  does  not  mean  unnecessary  labor;  it  means  doing  most  of 
the  work  before  the  actual  writing  of  the  essay  begins.  A  good 
outline  for  essays  upon  such  subjects  as  those  covered  in  this 
chapter  is  much  more  than  hah  the  work  of  composition,  and 
saves  time  in  the  end. 

116.  Paragraphing  in  relation  to  the  outline.  Although  the 
outline  represents  the  logical  structure  of  the  essay  as  a  whole, 
it  may  be  made  also  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  paragraphing.  After 
the  first  draft  of  it  is  complete,  the  writer  may  go  through  it 
with  the  purpose  of  dividing  the  material  into  ten  or  twelve 
paragraphs,  writing  a  paragraph  sign  in  the  left-hand  margin 
where  each  new  paragraph  is  likely  to  begin.  In  some  cases  a 
grand  division  will  make  but  a  single  paragraph;  in  others  a 
paragraph  may  be  required  for  a  minor  subdivision.  All  depends 
upon  the  scale  of  proportionate  emphasis  which  the  writer  has 
adopted  in  accordance  with  his  purpose  and  the  particular  inter- 
ests of  the  reader.  An  example  of  a  fully  developed  outline, 
with  the  corresponding  paragraphs  indicated  by  symbols  in  the 
margin,  is  the  following  analysis  of  a  chapter  in  Bryce's  The 
American  Commonwealth: 

Organs    of   Public   Opinion   in   the    United    States 

Outline  of  Chapter  Ixxix,  The  American  Commonwealth 

(1[i)     I.     Popular  sovereignty  implies  adequate  and  unmistakable  organs 
of  public  opinion. 
A.  Such  organs  are  more  important  in  America  than  in  Europe,  for 
(^2)  I.    Public  opinion  governs  here  not  only  the  elections  but  the 

conduct  of  officials  between  elections. 
II.     Newspapers  are  the  chief  organs  of  public  opinion  in  America. 

A.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  their  importance,  for 

(^3)  I.   They  not  only  express  existing  opinion,  but  try  to  form  opinion 

by   claiming    to    represent    more  constituents   than    they 
really  do. 

B.  American  newspapers  are  powerful  organs  of  pubhc  opinion  in 
three  ways: 


i6o  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

(1[4)  I-   They  report  events. 

a.   Many  newspapers  report  as  news  alleged  events  for  which 

there  is  slight  evidence. 
(^5)  b.   Although  this  lack  of    accuracy   has  evils,  it  probably 

prevents  some  great  abuses  by  means  of   the   fear  of 

publicity. 
(^6)  c.    Political  news  is  reported  with  greater  detail   than  in 

Europe. 

(i)    Not  so  many  reports  of  speeches,  but  poUtical  gossip. 

(^7)  2.   They  advocate  political  doctrines. 

a.  Their  poHtical  arguments  are  not  more  prejudiced  or 
unfair  than  in  Europe,  but 

b.  Have  less  influence  upon  public  opinion  because  of  dis- 
count; except  that 

c.  Editorial  argument  based  upon  actual  misdeeds  of  poUti- 
cians  has  much  weight. 

(^8)  d.   The  partisan  press  is  less  powerful  in  America  than  in 

Europe,  because 
(i)    The  public  is  more  independent,  and 

(^9)  (2)    The  large  city  papers  have  more  competitors. 

(a)    Horace   Greeley  was  the  only  recent  partisan 
editor  of  large  influence. 

(Hio)  3-   They  reflect  public  opinion. 

a.  Partisan  papers  do  this  only  in  a  minor  degree,  but 

b.  There  are  three  classes  of  semi-independent  papers: 

(i)    Papers  usually  partisan  which  occasionally  "bolt"; 

(2)  Papers  primarily  devoted  to  news; 

(3)  Papers  not  professedly  political,  such  as 

(a)  Religious  weeklies; 

(b)  Monthly  magazines. 

(^11)  c.    During  presidential  contests  the  attitude  of  the  leading  city 

papers  is  of  great  significance  as  an  index  of  public  opinion. 

(^fi2)  d.   American  newspapers  have  a  peculiar  means  of  indicating 

public  opinion  by  citing  the  nominally  private  poUtical 
letters  or  conversations  of  prominent  men. 

(II13)  C.  American  newspapers  in  general  express  and  affect  public  opinion 
more  fully  than  on  the  Continent,  and  not  less  fully  than  in 
England. 


EXPOSITION  BASED  ON  READING  i6i 

1.  Individual  journalists  are  less  powerful  because  of  the  greater 
independence  of  the  people. 

2.  The  moral  level  of  the  press  is  not  above  that  of  the  average 
American  citizen,  but  is  above  that  of  the  machine  poHtician. 

(II14)  D.  As  in  England,  an  impression  of  pubhc  opinion  gained  from  the 
newspapers  must  be  supplemented  by  conversation  with 
intelligent  observers  of  current  affairs. 

III.  Besides    the   newspapers   there    are  various  minor  organs  of 
public  opinion. 

A.  Some  of  these  are  less  influential  than  in  England. 

(^15)  I.   Letters  to  legislators  from  constituents  play  a  smaller  part 

than  in  England  as  indicators  of  public  opinion. 
(^16)  2.   Public  political  meetings  are  less  important  than  in  England. 

a.  They  are  not  often  held  except  during  campaigns.  , 

b.  Campaign    speeches   are   not   argumentative,   since   the 
audience  is  assumed  to  be  wholly  partisan. 

B.  Others  are  more  important  than  in  England. 

(^[17)  I.   Minor  elections  are  regarded  as  important  indications  of 

pohtical  opinion. 
(^18)  2.   Associations  of  a  philanthropic,  economic,  or  social  nature 

influence  public  opinion. 
(^19)  a.   They  produce  the  impression  of  great  and  growing  move- 

ments. 

h.   They  give  impetus  to  new  and  weak  enterprises. 

IV.  The  cities  control  public  opinion  less  in  America  than  in  Europe. 
(^20)     A.  The  urban  population  is  proportionately  less. 

B.   Newspaper  reading,  however,  tends  to  give  the  cities  power  out 
of  proportion  to  their  population. 

V.  It  is  somewhat  easier  to  discern  the  trend  of  public  opinion  in 
America  than  in  Europe,  for 

(T[2i)     A.  There  is  freer  intercourse  among  the  classes. 

B.  The  proportion  of  non-partisans  is  smaller. 

C.  Yet  the  size  of  the  country  and  the  even  balance  of  parties  pre- 

sent difficulties. 
(IJ22)  VI.  Public  opinion  governs  in  America,  even  though  it  is  not  always 
easy  for  the  statesman  to  ascertain  what  that  opinion  is. 


i62  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

,  The  paragraphs  in  Mr.  Bryce's  chapter  number  twenty-two. 
The  number  of  grand  divisions  may  be  reduced  as  above  to  six, 
though  the  material  grouped  together  under  III  might  be 
regarded  as  belonging  under  two  or  more  general  heads.  Of  the 
six  grand  divisions  the  first  is  an  introduction  and  the  last  a  con- 
clusion. It  will  be  noted  that  some  of  the  paragraphs  in  this 
chapter  coincide  with  grand  divisions,  some  with  subdivisions, 
even  with  points  so  relatively  subordinate  as  to  be  denoted  in 
the  outline  by  small  letters.  Such  an  illustration  shows  that  to 
determine  the  best  paragraphing  for  an  essay  of  five  or  six 
divisions  and  but  twelve  paragraphs  is  by  no  means  easy.  It 
is  usually  the  experience  of  those  who  write  rapidly  that  some 
paragraphs  prove  to  be  unduly  long  and  others  unduly  short. 
The  remedy  may  be  to  redistribute  the  material,  changing  the 
provisional  paragraphing  indicated  in  the  outline,  and  thereby 
achieving  better  balance. 

117.  Writing  the  essay.  Even  after  the  outline  has  been 
criticised  and  revised,  one  may  find  upon  beginning  to  •write 
that  the  arrangement  or  the  proportion  there  proposed  can  be 
improved.  Never  stick  slavishly  to  a  preconceived  plan  when 
a  better  is  discovered.  A  radical  change,  however,  unless  based 
on  a  new  written  memorandum,  may  prove  disappointing.  The 
principal  thing  to  work  for  in  the  first  draft  is  animation,  and 
this  is  best  attained  by  rapid  writing,  unbroken  by  interruptions. 
Each  paragraph  is  to  have  its  transitional  sentence  or  phrase,  its 
topic  sentence,  and  its  development.  All  the  principles  of 
good  paragraph-writing  explained  in  Chapter  V  are  here  to  be 
put  in  practice.  Even  at  this  stage,  if  it  appears  that  for  some 
indispensable  paragraph  there  is  not  enough  material  in  the 
notes  for  suitable  development,  it  is  worth  while  to  go  to  the 
library  and  sjiend  half  an  hour  collecting  examples  or  details 
bearing  on  t he  jioint.  Here  we  see  the  value  of  the  bibliography, 
and  of  the  citations  of  specific  passages  in  the  notes.  A  common 
fault  to  be  avoided  is  over-development  of  one  point  in  order 


EXPOSITION  BASED  ON  READING  163 

to  cover  the  slighting  of  another.  It  is  better  to  leave  out 
entirely  an  aspect  of  the  subject  which  cannot  be  presented  with 
enough  fullness  to  be  made  interesting. 

118.  Self-criticism  in  English  composition.  Remembering 
the  motto  of  this  chapter  — "Why  should  anybody  read  this?" 
—  we  must  now,  after  writing  the  first  draft,  undertake  the  most 
important  task  of  all.  We  must  judge  our  own  work.  Few 
freshmen  do  that;  few  students  of  any  sort.  Not  until  our 
success  in  some  undertaking  of  real  importance  to  ourselves  is 
seen  to  turn  upon  our  ability  to  speak  or  to  write  at  our  very 
best  do  we  grasp  the  principle  that  only  our  best  is  good  enough. 
So  long  as  nothing  more  than  an  instructor's  grade  is  set  up  as 
the  goal,  many  are  content  with  mediocrity. 

A  common  attitude  toward  what  we  have  written  is  some- 
what like  this:  "Well,  it  might  be  better,  and  it  might  be  worse. 
I've  spent  more  time  on  it  already  than  I  could  afford,  and  now 
about  all  I  can  do  with  it  is  to  copy  it  and  get  it  off  my  hands. 
Some  other  time,  when  I  really  want  to,  I  can  do  a  whole  lot 
better  work  than  that."  This  very  moderate  self-depreciation 
is  not  self-criticism.  It  does  nothing  to  improve  defects,  and 
only  injures  one's  intellectual  self-respect  by  a  half-serious 
apology  for  slack  work.  By  praising  an  imaginary  latent 
ability,  not  yet  demonstrated  in  practice,  we  hope  to  deceive 
ourselves.  Apart  from  the  more  or  less  frank  admission  that 
what  we  have  written  falls  short  of  what  we  feel  capable  of  doing, 
most  of  us  do  not  know  the  meaning  of  self-criticism  in  com- 
position.    What  does  it  involve? 

(i)  The  first  step  in  criticising  a  piece  of  one's  own  composi- 
tion is  to  read  it  aloud.  How  does  it  sound?  Many  an  awkward 
sentence,  many  a  carelessly  repeated  word,  can  be  discovered  in 
no  other  way.  Merely  to  run  the  eye  over  the  hastily  written 
manuscript  is  quite  inadequate.  Unless  a  typewriter  has  been 
used  for  the  first  draft  —  and  this  is  rarely  done  except  by 
experienced  typists  —  the  words  do  not  stand  out  on  the  page 


i64  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

clearly  enough  to  fix  attention  upon  faulty  passages.  Reading 
aloud  tests  the  length  of  the  sentences:  how  many  of  them 
require  more  than  a  single  breath  each?  It  tests  euphony :  how 
often  are  there  harsh  combinations  of  consonants,  unintentional 
rimes,  wearisome  repetitions  of  words  ending  in  -ing  or  -tmi7  It 
tests  the  emphasis  of  the  sentence:  how  often,  after  the  real  point 
of  a  sentence  has  been  reached  midway,  does  the  voice  trail  off 
weakly  into  phrases  tacked  on  as  afterthoughts?  Reading 
aloud  tests  interest.  Even  when  we  are  tired  of  our  job,  and  can 
scarcely  distinguish  good  from  bad  by  staring  at  the  \vritten 
page,  the  voice  brings  out  the  difference.  Here  and  there  we 
receive  unexpected  encouragement:  that  is  a  good  sentence,  a 
good  paragraph;  it  sounds  better  than  it  looks  on  paper. 

Particularly  does  this  test  by  reading  aloud  help  us  to  detect 
the  presence  or  absence  of  final  emphasis  in  the  paragraph  and 
in  the  whole  composition.  We  can  hear,  though  we  could  not 
see,  that  one  paragraph  ends  well,  ends  with  a  snap  like  the  crack 
of  a  whip,  and  another  ends  like  a  motor  car  firing  on  three 
cylinders.  Question:  which  cylinder  is  missing?  Reading 
aloud  an  essay  of  two  thousand  words  takes  less  than  twenty 
minutes;  no  one  needs  to  feel  that  there  is  not  time  for  it.  Of 
course,  to  read  aloud  to  a  sympathetic  but  candid  critic  is  in 
some  ways  far  better  than  to  read  aloud  to  oneself;  but  often 
there  is  no  opportunity  for  this,  and  besides,  a  vague  word  of 
praise  or  of  disparagement  such  as  one  is  most  likely  to  get  is  of 
less  value  than  the  specific  verdict  of  one's  own  ears  at  each  stage 
of  the  discussion.  In  either  case,  as  one  reads  aloud,  every  fault 
should  be  noted  in  the  manuscript  by  a  pencil  check  or  query;  a 
line  drawn  under  a  word  or  phrase,  a  circle  drawn  around  it. 
The  specific  correction  should  usually  be  left  until  the  reading  is 
complete. 

(2)  A  second  stage  in  self-criticism  is  to  learn  to  distinguish 
the  best.  Somewhere  in  any  piece  of  writing  that  has  been 
sincerely  and  ])atiently  done  there  is  a  paragraph  or  a  sentence 


EXPOSITION  BASED  ON  READING  165 

that  stands  out  above  the  rest.  Whether  by  working  harder 
over  it,  or  by  some  lucky  accident,  we  there  excelled.  Our 
literary  conscience  approves.  If  the  whole  thing  were  as  good 
as  that,  we  should  not  need  to  be  ashamed  of  it.  Such  traces 
of  excellence  are  to  be  looked  for,  not  as  cause  for  self-congratula- 
tion, but  as  a  basis  for  improvement.  Here,  here  only,  is  my 
true  level;  all  the  rest  is  beneath  me;  where  else,  then,  can  I 
lift  tameness  to  force,  dullness  to  distinction,  ugliness  to  beauty? 
At  these  oases  one  may  not  linger,  except  perhaps  to  draw,  from 
their  infrequent  wells,  water  to  help  irrigate  the  surrounding 
desert. 

Constructive  criticism  proceeds  always  by  this  method.  It 
looks  for  the  one  true  word,  the  exact  word,  and  when  it  is 
found,  seeks  then  to  build  other  fit  words  around  it.  It  seizes 
upon  the  one  best  sentence  in  an  incoherent,  rambling  paragiaph, 
and  conceives  a  new  paragraph  beginning  or  ending  with  that 
sentence.  In  any  kind  of  writing— not  merely  in  this  one  long 
essay  —  this  principle  is  worth  remembering.  Suppose  one  has 
been  so  reckless  as  to  try  to  write  verses.  If  they  are  rimed 
verses,  the  one  inevitable  line,  that  simply  has  to  be  kept,  will 
dictate  the  rime  for  the  rest  of  the  stanza.  Anything  else  may 
go  but  that.  It  is  like  refurnishing  a  room;  there  are  just  two 
things  in  that  room  that  are  really  good,  and  must  be  preserved 
—  one  chair,  and  one  rug.  Furniture  that  will  not  spoil  that 
chair,  colors  that  will  not  quarrel  with  that  rug,  are  what  we 
seek.  So,  in  the  making  of  a  tune,  there  is  one  chord  that  we 
have  set  our  heart  upon:  all  the  rest  of  the  harmony  must  so 
progress,  so  modulate,  that  the  one  best  chord  shall  not  suffer. 
Illustrations  from  the  arts  are  not  out  of  place;  for  by  this  time 
it  dawns  upon  us  that  the  best  use  of  the  best  words  is  also  an 
art. 

One  caution  in  the  application  of  this  principle  of  choosing  the 
best  things  in  the  essay  and  trying  to  raise  the  rest  toward  that 
level:  we  must  not  grow  too  fond  of  a  merely  neat  or  pretty 


i66  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

phrase.  Is  it  true?  Is  it  in  place  here?  Does  it  throw  real 
light  upon  the  pathway  we  must  follow,  or  does  it  suggest 
alluring  irrelevancies?  Relentless  self-criticism  does  not  stop 
with  the  choice  of  what  seems  for  the  moment  the  best:  it  soon 
I)asses  beyond  that,  and  sets  for  itself  higher  standards.  Says 
Francis  Quarles:  "Be  always  displeased  at  what  thou  art,  if 
thou  desire  to  attain  to  what  thou  art  not;  for  where  thou  hast 
pleased  thyself;:  there  thou  abidest." 

(3)  A  third  stage  in  self-criticism,  and  the  last  to  be  men- 
tioned here;  comes  after  all  radical  revision  is  complete,  cind  the 
rough  draft  has  been  copied.  This  is  revision  for  errors  of  form 
—  errors  of  spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation.  Is  there  a 
comma  not  only  before  but  after  each  appositive  phrase?  Are 
there  quotation  marks  not  only  before  but  after  each  phrase  or 
sentence  that  is  not  original?  Are  all  book  titles  underlined? 
Are  the  sources  of  all  quotations  cited  in  footnotes,  or  in  the 
margin?  Is  there  a  select  bibliography  of  books  consulted?  Is 
the  spelling  as  nearly  perfect  as  careful  scrutiny  can  make  it? 
Is  there  not,  even  now,  a  misplaced  modifier  that  should  be 
transposed,  by  a  line  drawn  around  it  and  connected  with  a 
caret  at  the  proper  place?  An  experienced  writer  seldom  finds 
a  page  of  his  own  revised  manuscript  that  does  not  need  some 
such  corrections  in  the  final  copy.  Why  should  a  beginner 
e.xpect  to  be  more  fortunate? 

An  hour  spent  in  this  sort  of  self-criticism  before  copying, 
and  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  hunting  for  errors  in  the  copy,  may 
make  all  the  difference  between  success  and  failure  in  this  enter- 
prise, representing  as  it  does  the  work  of  many  days  or  weeks. 
Without  such  revision,  the  writer's  answer  to  the  question,  "Why 
should  anybody  read  this?"  must  be  "I  don't  know,  for  I  didn't 
read  it  myself."  With  it,  the  answer  is,  "Because  I  have  done 
my  best." 


EXPOSITION  BASED  ON  READING  167 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignments  26-28.  Spend  during  the  week  at  least  six  hours  in  reading 
for  the  long  essay,  keeping  an  accurate  record  of  time.  This  reading  should 
be  done  chiefly  in  the  college  hbrary;  for  if  the  books  are  drawn  out  by  one 
student,  others  writing  on  the  same  subject  will  be  deprived  of  them. 

Assignment  29.     Study  Chapter  VII,  and  finish  the  reading  for  the  essay. 

Assignment  30.  Hand  in  the  outUne  for  the  long  essay,  preserving  the 
original  draft  for  reference. 

Assignment  31.     Write  the  first  draft  of  the  essay.     Re-read  section  118. 
Assignment  32.     Revise  and  copy  the  essay,  and  hand  it  in. 


CHAPTER  VITI 

SPEECHES   FOR   SPECIAL   OCCASIONS 

119.  Public  speaking  outside  the  classroom.  Apart  from 
oral  work  in  the  classroom,  any  freshman  is  Ukely  to  be  called 
on  from  time  to  time  to  address  his  classmates  and  other  audiences 
on  matters  of  temporary  or  permanent  interest.  Some  of  the 
types  of  non-academic  speaking  most  common  during  college 
years  are  as  follows: 

Informal 

1.  The  after-dinner  speech  on  an  assigned  toast. 

2.  The  after-dinner  opening  speech  and  introductions  of  a  toastmaster. 

3.  The  speech  in  a  class  or  college  meeting  designed  to  stimulate  college 
spirit,  as  for  the  support  of  athletics,  dramatics,  or  other  student  activities. 

4.  The  argumentative  speech  in  a  deliberative  assembly  of  students  on  a 
debatable  question  of  student  poUcy,  such  as  the  adoption  of  an  honor  system, 
or  the  acceptance  of  a  debating  challenge. 

5.  The  congratulatory  speech  to  a  victorious  team,  a  successful  prize 
winner,  a  successful  candidate  for  office. 

6.  The  presentation  speech  in  awarding  prizes,  cups,  medals,  college 
initials,  or  class  numerals,  gifts  to  departing  classmates. 

Formal 

The  nominating  speech. 
The  initiation  banquet  speech  of  an  initiate. 
9.     The  charge  to  initiates  by  an  upper  classman. 

10.     The  report  of  a  delegate  from  a  local  society  to  a  general  convention. 
The  address  at  a  high  school,  designed  to  attract  students  to  a 
particular  college. 

168 


SPEECHES   FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  169 

12.  The  political  campaign  speech  to  small  but  difficult  audiences,  such 
as  ward  meetings  and  street  groups. 

13.  The  brief  platform  address  representing  college  interests  in  a  conven- 
tion of  religious  or  social  workers. 

14.  Anniveisary  addresses  on  Washington's  and  Lincoln's  birthdays, 
Memorial  Day,  and  Independence  Day. 

These  are  types  of  speeches  that  any  man  may  be  called  on 
to  make  while  still  in  college.  There  are  several  other  kinds 
that  might  present  themselves  as  opportunities  to  a  college 
man  interested  in  public  questions: 

15.  An  impromptu  speech  before  a  college  or  general  audience  defending 
an  individual  or  a  cause  that  has  been  attacked;  e.g.,  defending  an  unpopular 
strike,  a  new  law,  a  judicial  decision,  a  pubhc  man  under  fire,  a  heretical 
minister,  an  unpopular  teacher,  a  radical  book  or  play,  an  unsuccessful 
venture  in  philanthropy  or  reform. 

16.  A  speech  before  an  unruly  or  turbulent  audience,  as  of  noisy  street 
boys  or  disorderly  laborers,  appealing  for  fair  play,  for  a  hearing  for  some 
other  speaker,  etc. 

17.  A  speech  appeaUng  for  money  or  subscriptions  for  a  worthy  charity 
or  other  needy  cause. 

120.     Speeches  mingle  exposition,  argument,  and  persuasion. 

Notice  that  no  academic  speeches  are  here  included,  such  as 
debates,  declamations,  and  college  orations.  All  of  these  seven- 
teen types  are  real  speaking,  not  practice  speaking,  and  aim  at  a 
definite  result.  Some  are  chiefly  persuasive,  others  both  argu- 
mentative and  persuasive,  still  others  purely  expository;  that 
is,  some  try  to  get  people  to  act  on  their  convictions,  others  try 
to  change  their  convictions,  and  others  merely  impart  infor- 
mation on  non-controversial  questions.  An  after-dinner  speech, 
for  example,  ordinarily  aims  at  no  argument,  or  even  persuasion, 
except  as  the  giving  of  good  advice  may  be  regarded  as  per- 
suasion. Its  purpose  is  to  mingle  diversion  with  mild  exhor- 
tation in  suitable  proportions.  Anniversary  and  commemora- 
tive addresses,  again,  are  largely  expository.     Their  persuasive 


I70  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

appeal  to  patriotic  emotion,sinceit  cannotordinarily  begrounded 
on  argument,  must  rest  on  a  solid  foundation  of  exposition  in 
order  to  have  any  effect.  A  Memorial  Day  speaker  must  ex- 
plain what  the  day  means  in  some  slightly  new  or  fresh  or 
vivid  way  in  order  to  touch  the  sentiments  of  his  hearers.  He 
has  nothing .  to  argue,  no  attack  to  refute,  no  opponent  but 
indifference  and  apathy.  The  same  is  true  in  congratulatory 
and  presentation  speeches:  the  main  body  of  them  consists  of 
an  exposition  of  the  value  of  the  work  done,  the  service  rendered, 
the  success  achieved.  On  the  other  hand,  such  types  as  Numbers 
4,  II,  12,  15,  16,  17,  base  persuasion  strictly  on  conviction,  and 
demand  obedience  to  the  laws  of  argumentation.  Writing  and 
speaking  of  this  sort  will  be  more  valuable  after  some  study  of 
argumentative  principles. 

We  shall  now  undertake,  therefore,  the  writing  and  delivery 
of  a  short  speech  of  an  expository  character  with  a  persuasive 
conclusion,  such  as  those  in  the  following  list: 

(i)     An  after-dinner  speech  based  on  a  specilic  toast  or  motto. 

(2)  A  nominating  speech  for  an  important  office  in  some 
organization  (preferably  not  the  college  class). 

(3)  A  congratulatory  speech  to  a  victorious  team  after  a 
successful  season. 

(4)  An  anniversary  speech  before  a  general  audience  on  a 
national  holiday. 

(5)  A  eulogistic  or  commemorative  speech  on  some  prom- 
inent man  before  a  special  audience:  for  example,  on  a  former 
president  of  the  college  before  college  men;  on  a  distinguished 
alumnus  before  a  fraternity;  on  a  famous  general,  or  hero,  or 
explorer,  or  missionary,  before  an  audience  of  boys. 

These  five  t}qoes  may  be  brielly  considered  in  turn: 

121.     The  after-dinner  speech.     Ordinarily  the  subject  is 

assigned  in  the  form  of  a  phrase  or  motto.     When  a  speaker  is 

allowed  to  choose  his  own  topic,  he  usually  makes  his  selection 

in  accordance  with  the  general  scheme  of  the  evening's  program. 


SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  171 

For  this  assignment,  therefore,  the  student  may  well  take  an 
old  banquet  menu  and  pick  out  a  title  that  has  actually  been 
used.  This  title  will  give  him  the  clew  for  the  humorous 
introduction  often  regarded  as  indispensable.  A  funny  story 
or  quotation  is  expected  by  many  audiences  at  the  beginning  of 
any  after-dinner  speech.  The  tradition  may  be  an  irrational 
one,  and  its  results  are  quite  as  often  tragic  as  comic;  never- 
theless, one  must  sometimes  bow  to  the  tyrant  custom.  Where 
one  shall  get  the  funny  story,  it  is  no  part  of  the  business  of 
this  book  to  reveal.  The  only  hint  that  discretion  permits  is 
that  there  are  some  stories  so  old  as  to  be  almost  new.  After 
his  anecdote  or  other  introduction,  the  speaker  undertakes  a 
more  or  less  humorous  analysis  of  his  subject  into  two  or  three 
parts;  offers  a  few  remarks  on  each;  works  in  a  serious  word  or 
two  on  loyalty,  or  honor,  or  the  spirit  of  brotherhood;  and  ends 
with  a  periodic  sentence  of  climax  or  appeal.  The  things  to 
look  out  for  are  the  first  sentence,  the  serious  or  whimsical 
division  of  the  subject  (often  alliterative),  and  the  conclusion. 
The  student  is  implored  not  to  end  with  a  sentimental  poem  if 
he  can  possibly  avoid  it.  A  bit  of  humorous  verse,  or  an  aptly 
quoted  sentence  of  famous  prose,  sometimes  rounds  out  a  short 
speech  better  than  any  word  of  one's  own. 

122.  The  nominating  speech.  This  should  not  be  informal 
or  humorous.  The  nomination  should  be  for  president  of  some 
local  society  or  club  of  importance,  or  for  mayor,  or  school  com- 
missioner, or  Congressman.  The  nominee  should  in  no  case  be 
a  college  undergraduate,  but  some  well-known  citizen,  perhaps 
an  alumnus  of  the  college.  The  speech  should  consist  of  two 
parts:  an  exposition  of  the  duties  and  the  importance  of  the 
office,  and  an  exposition  of  those  qualities  of  the  nominee  which 
fit  him  to  occupy  it.  Such  an  office  as  that  of  school  com- 
missioner perhaps  offers  the  best  opportunities  for  a  good  ex- 
position, inasmuch  as  it  calls  for  a  careful  statement  of  the 
proper  public  school  policy;  or  that  of  prosecuting  attorney  or 


172  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

police  judge,  since  the  speaker  must  assume  a  definite  attitude 
toward  the  question  of  law  enforcement  in  disputed  matters. 

123.  The  congratulatory  speech.  In  congratulating  an 
individual  or  a  group  of  successful  fellow-students,  one  may 
dwell,  first,  on  the  difficulties  which  they  have  had  to  meet 
secondly,  on  the  skill  and  industry  with  which  they  have  labored, 
and  thirdly,  on  the  significance  and  value  which  their  success 
implies  for  the  college  and  the  community.  In  such  a  field  as 
debating  there  is  more  to  say  in  exposition  of  the  unrecognized 
values  of  the  contest  than  in  athletics,  or  in  non-competitive 
activities  like  musical  and  dramatic  entertainments.  This 
speech  may  well  be  enlivened  by  a  little  humor. 

124.  The  anniversary  speech.  Nothing  new  can  be  said 
by  young  speakers  about  Lincoln,  or  Washington,  or  the  Civil 
War,  or  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  or  Armistice  Day. 
Yet  one  is  loath  to  believe  that  the  time  has  passed  when  it  is 
good  for  young  men  to  feel  and  express  for  themselves  the  deeper 
meanings  of  American  history.  The  difficult  thing  is  to  feel  for 
oneself  that  which  has  become  hackneyed  and  stale  through 
long  years  of  insincere  commemoration.  Let  a  man  turn  to 
Lincoln's  own  letters  and  speeches  during  the  darkest  period  of 
the  Civil  War;  or  glance  through  the  library  files  of  war-time 
newspapers;  or  look  at  war  pictures  in  Harper's  Weekly  or  the 
Photographic  History  of  the  Civil  War.  Let  him  read  in  one  of 
the  larger  histories  the  unvarnished  account  of  Washington's 
difficulties  with  bickering  generals,  unscrupulous  politicians, 
bankrupt  treasuries,  and  treachery  among  his  own  friends.  Let 
him  go  to  the  armory  or  museum  where  the  battle  flags  of  1865 
or  19 18  are  furled.  Let  him,  if  he  would  realize  more  fully  what 
patriotism  means,  read  here  and  there  in  Walt  Whitman's  Drum 
Taps,  or  'T  hear  America  singing,"  or  "When  lilacs  last  in  the 
door3^ard  bloomed,"  or  "By  blue  Ontario's  shore."  Or  let  him 
read  Franklin  K.  Lane's  speech  on  the  American  flag.  Then 
let  him  write  his  anniversary  speech.    It  is  a  hard  but  a  high 


SPEECHES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  173 

task  to  interpret  to  a  careless  generation  the  great  commonplaces 
that  make  America. 

125.  The  eiUogistic  speech.  In  striving  to  make  a  great 
man's  life  stand  out  in  clear  outline,  one  should  seize  upon  a 
single  dominant  characteristic.  Let  it  be  the  man's  faith  in 
his  fellows,  or  his  moral  courage,  or  his  zeal  for  truth,  or  his 
self-sacrifice.  Biographical  details  are  of  importance  only  as 
they  contribute  to  this  end.  Nothing  is  duller  than  a  bare, 
brief,  narrative  recital  of  dates  and  deeds  in  a  man's  career, 
without  any  organization,  any  interpretation,  any  perspective. 
The  question  is,  Why  should  this  man's  name  be  remembered 
and  revered  by  those  who  know  little  of  what  he  did?  What 
does  he  stand  for,  apart  from  the  petty  circumstances  of  his 
career?  Let  his  life  interpret  his  spirit.  Examples  and  anec- 
dotes will  then  fall  into  place  as  explaining  and  reenforcing  the 
man's  intellectual  or  moral  greatness.  The  eulogistic  address 
tends  to  exaggeration.  Let  this  be  counteracted  by  comparison 
with  still  greater  men  in  his  own  field,  or  with  equals  in  other 
fields.  Limitations  are  not  to  be  concealed,  nor  are  they  to  be 
emphasized.  A  calm,  critical,  cold-blooded  estimate  of  a  hero 
may  be  a  very  useful  exercise  in  writing,  but  it  is  not  so  good  a 
subject  for  public  speaking.  Here  the  appeal  is  frankly  to  ad- 
miration, not  blind,  but  whole-hearted  and  sincere. 

126.  Delivery  of  the  speeches.  These  speeches  should  be 
five  minutes  in  length,  six  to  seven  hundred  words.  Inasmuch 
as  the  appeal  in  all  is  in  some  degree  emotional  as  well  as  intel- 
lectual, the  delivery  should  be  more  forcible,  the  gestures  more 
numerous,  than  was  possible  in  the  speeches  of  Chapter  II. 
Whether  they  should  be  memorized,  or  only  assimilated  by 
frequent  private  oral  rehearsal,  will  depend  on  the  aptitude  of 
the  student  and  the  judgment  of  the  instructor.  In  either  case 
the  preparation  should  be  so  thorough  that  no  notes  need  to  be 
consulted  during  delivery.  The  best  test  of  success  is  the  degree 
in  which  the  speaker  can  make  his  audience  forget  that  the 


174  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

speech  is  a  classroom  exercise,  and  enter  into  the  spirit,  humorous 
or  serious,  of  his  subject. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  33.     Read  Chapter  VIII  and  prepare  a   five-minute  speech 
of  one  of  the  five  types  suggested. 

Assignment  34.     Rehearse  speech  oraUy. 


CHAPTER  rX 
LETTER-WRITING 

127.  Correct  form  in  business  letters.  In  business  letters 
it  is  best  to  avoid  all  abbreviation,  except  of  such  words  as  Mr. 
and  Mrs.,  spelling  out  the  names  of  months  and  states,  and  such 
words  as  street,  avenue,  company.  Figures,  however,  should 
always  be  used  for  the  day  of  the  month,  the  date  of  the  year, 
and  house  numbers.  It  is  an  undesirable  affectation  to  write 
dates  entirely  in  words.  Excessive  abbreviation  implies  haste 
and  carelessness,  but  the  use  of  figures  for  dates  is  not  abbrevia- 
tion; it  is  established  usage.  The  only  exception  is  in  the  case  of 
formal  engraved  or  written  social  invitations  in  the  third  person. 

The  inside  address  in  a  business  letter  should  include  the  com- 
plete name  of  the  person,  firm,  or  company  addressed,  with  the 
proper  title  before  the  name  of  a  person,  and  the  word  Messrs. 
before  the  name  of  a  firm;  together  with  at  least  the  name  of 
the  city  of  the  addressee's  residence,  and  preferably  the  street 
address.  It  is  extremely  crude  to  begin  any  kind  of  letter  thus: 
Mr.  Andrew  Jackson, 
Dear  Sir: 

Another  point  in  connection  with  the  inside  address  in  letters 
to  individuals  is  that  the  first  name  or  initials  of  the  person 
addressed  must  always  follow  the  title.    To  begin  a  letter 
Prof.  Wilson, 

Simpson  University, 

Dear  Sir: 
is  inexcusable.     If  one  does  not  know  the  initials,  courtesy 
demands  that  a  directory  or  catalogue  be  consulted  in  order  to 

175 


176  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

find  them;  unless,  indeed,  the  acquaintance  of  the  writer  with 
the  addressee,  as  pointed  out  in  the  next  section,  justifies  the 
sahitation  My  dear  Professor  Wilson,  in  which  case  the  initials 
are  of  course  not  needed.  They  will,  however,  be  needed  for 
the  outside  address,  in  any  case. 

128.  The  salutation  in  letters  to  professional  men.  The 
salutations  Dear  Sir,  Dear  Madam,  and  Gentlemen  are  ap- 
propriate for  all  business  letters.  On  the  other  hand,  letters 
written  to  a  professional  man  with  whom  one  has  even  a  slight 
acquaintance  more  often  begin  My  dear  Professor  James,  My 
dear  Doctor  Merriam,  with  the  inside  address  transferred  to 
the  end  of  the  letter,  or  omitted.  Such  letters  as  the  follow- 
ing should  begin  in  this  way:  letters  to  a  college  teacher  in 
regard  to  college  business;  letters  to  a  minister,  physician, 
or  lawyer  with  whom  one  has  some  acquaintance  or  ofl&cial 
relation;  letters  even  to  strangers  under  such  circumstances  as 
arranging  for  a  debate  with  another  college,  inviting  judges, 
requesting  literary  contributions  to  college  publications.  These 
are  all  business  letters  in  the  sense  that  they  deal  with  definite 
transactions  and  arrangements  not  of  a  social  character;  but 
they  rest  upon  a  personal  basis  or  relation,  which  demands  the 
less  formal  salutation.  On  the  other  hand,  an  athletic  manager 
ordering  goods  for  a  team,  a  solicitor  requesting  advertising  for 
a  student  publication,  a  student  ordering  books  from  a  pub- 
hsher,  or  applying  for  a  summer  position  as  canvasser,  would 
of  course  begin  with  the  complete  inside  address  followed  by 
Dear  Sir  or  Gentlemen.  The  difference  between  the  strictly 
commercial  letter  and  the  formal  yet  personal  letter  addressed 
to  professional  men  is  not  easy  to  define  precisely.  Perhaps  it 
will  sufiice  to  remember  that  one  should  use  Dear  Sir  if  a 
money  consideration  is  the  principal  thing  involved  on  the  part 
of  the  addressee;  and  My  Dear  Mr.  ...  if  the  element  of 
professional  skill,  courtesy,  or  accommodation  is  dominant. 

129.  Style  in  business  letters.    In  the  body  of  a  business 


LETTER- WRITING  1 7  7 

letter  all  the  principles  of  exposition  apply:  unity,  in  that  the 
paragraphing  should  show  at  a  glance  the  several  subjects  or 
parts  of  a  subject  of  which  the  letter  treats;  coherence,  in  that 
the  order  of  words  and  phrases  within  the  sentence,  and  of  sen- 
tences within  the  paragraph,  should  be  logical  and  clear;  em- 
phasis, in  that  the  most  important  points  should  be  dealt  with 
in  the  emphatic  positions,  the  beginning  and  the  end,  and  with 
such  fullness  as  may  be  necessary.  In  all  these  respects  the 
modern  practice  of  dictating  letters  to  an  amanuensis  has  caused 
a  great  deterioration  in  the  business  correspondence  of  all  but 
the  best  firms  and  corporations.  Dictation  as  a  form  of  oral 
composition  is  the  most  important  of  all  uses  of  English  for 
the  successful  business  man  and  for  many  professional  men. 
For  obvious  reasons  no  practice  in  dictation  can  be  given  in  col- 
lege classes.  Inasmuch  as  most  college  men  have  to  write 
their  own  business  letters  for  some  years  before  they  are  able  to 
employ  a  secretary,  the  best  way  to  learn  to  dictate  well  is  to 
write  well. 

130.  Good  arrangement  of  material.  The  secret  of  securing 
unity  and  coherence  in  a  long  business  letter  is  to  have  clearly 
in  mind  the  several  points  to  be  discussed,  and  to  arrange  them 
in  a  natural  order.  Whether  one  is  answering  a  letter  contain- 
ing inquiries  or  writing  without  such  a  basis,  this  mental  analy- 
sis of  the  material  is  indispensable.  Suppose,  for  example, 
that  a  college  man  is  writing  a  long  letter  to  a  publisher  who 
has  undertaken  to  print  a  college  annual.  Various  inquiries 
have  been  made  on  both  sides,  and  further  questions  have  arisen 
among  the  college  men  in  charge  of  the  enterprise.  The  wrong 
and  the  right  way  of  arranging  such  a  letter  may  be  illustrated 
in  the  following  examples.  The  first  version  also  illustrates 
various  errors  of  abbreviation,  and  contains  in  the  first  and  last 
sentences  hackneyed  phrases  which  should  be  carefully  avoided. 


178  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

A  Poorly  Written  Business  Letter 

Provincetown,  N.  H. 
Nov.  17,  1922. 
Commonwealth  Pub.  Co. 

Dear  Sirs: 
Yours  of  the  14th  at  hand  and  in  reply  would  say  contents  of  same  were 
brought  before  the  class  at  its  meeting  yesterday.  The  men  voted  to  go 
ahead  with  the  book  on  the  figures  you  name.  Would  like  to  know  how  lon^ 
it  will  take  >ou  after  you  get  the  copy  and  photos  to  get  the  book  out.  It 
ought  to  be  ready  by  Apr.  i,  if  possible,  or  surely  before  the  end  of  April. 
Our  advertising  is  coming  along  nicely.  As  to  the  paper,  we  want  the 
heaviest  of  the  three  samples,  provided  out  alumni  subscriptions  warrant 
the  extra  cost;  otherwise  the  No.  2  will  do. 

We  don't  know  yet  about  the  half  tones,  whether  to  use  the  150  or  the 
200  Ime  screens,  as  you  call  them.  I  am  sending  you  by  express  about 
eighteen  faculty  photos.  These  will  be  ovals  two  inches  wide.  The  body 
t>T)e  ought  to  be  10  point  for  the  stories  and  write-ups  and  8  point  for  the 
grinds,  which  are  run  in  among  the  ads.  We  expect  to  have  a  lot  of  quarter- 
pages  that  must  be  run  next  to  reading  matter.  I  doubt  if  we  can  let  you 
have  any  copy  before  the  holidays,  but  will  try  to  get  some  of  the  fraternity 
stuff  as  soon  as  possible. 

About  the  red  borders  for  the  middle  form,  you  ask  what  that  will 
contain  and  when  you  can  get  the  copy  for  it.  Probably  it  will  be  all  dra- 
matic and  musical  club  stuff  that  will  not  be  ready  before  February.  Is 
there  any  reason  why  we  should  not  have  a  gilt  side  stamp  on  the  cover 
instead  of  yellow?  Would  it  cost  more?  The  end  papers  ought  to  be  colored 
as  you  say.  Your  extra  charge  for  minor  alterations  in  proof  seems  rather 
high.     Couldn't  you  shade  it  a  Uttle? 

You  ask  us  to  guarantee  500  copies  at  $2.75  each,  and  yet  you  say  extra 
copies  will  cost  us  just  as  much.  Oughtn't  there  to  be  some  saving  on  extra 
copies  if  you  make  your  price  on  a  guarantee? 

Surely  the  composition  and  the  half  tones  wouldn't  cost  you  anything 
extra  for  another  hundred,  and  the  presswork  and  paper  and  binding  can't 
cost  as  much  as  $2.75.  The  view  of  the  Ubrary  I  inclose  witli  the  faculty 
portraits  is  to  be  a  full  page. 

By  the  way,  does  your  figure  include  the  freight  on  the  books,  and  if  not, 
about  what  would  it  be?  The  class  wants  to  beat  the  record,  so  I  hope 
you  will  do  your  prettiest  for  us.     Thanking  you  in  advance  for  your  reply, 

Very  truly  yours, 

James  Spencer. 


LETTER-WRITING  179 

After  a  little  study  of  this  bewildering  collection  of  details, 
we  discover  that  the  letter  really  treats  of  the  following  topics: 
I.     Acceptance  of  the  bid. 
II.     Extra  charges  discussed  as  follows: 

A.  Charges  for  (i)  extra  form  and 

(2)  heavier  paper  accepted. 

B.  Charges  for  (i)  extra  copies  and 

(2)  alterations  protested. 

C.  Charges  for  (i)  freight  and 

(2)  gilt  stamp  queried. 
III.     Date  of  publication,  dependent  on  date  of  furnishing  copy. 
IV.     Size  of  tj'pe. 
V.     Half  Tones. 

A.  Medium  or  fine  screen? 

B.  Photographs  sent  by  express. 

In  the  letter  these  five  subjects  are  so  mixed  up  that  the 
chances  are  that  half  of  the  inquiries  would  go  unanswered, 
and  that  some  of  the  information  slipped  in  out  of  place  would 
go  unnoticed.  The  terms  of  the  bid  itself  are  not  repeated  as 
they  should  be  for  record.  By  a  mere  sorting  into  appropriate 
paragraphs,  the  many  points  of  detail  can  be  brought  within 
the  easy  and  rapid  comprehension  of  a  busy  manager.  After 
correction  of  the  crudities  of  expression,  the  revised  version  of 
the  letter  appears  as  follows: 

A  Business  Letter  Logically  Arranged 

Provincetown,  New  Hampshire, 
November  17,  1922 
The  Commonwealth  Publishing  Company, 

Cleveland,  Ohio 
Gentlemen: 

Your  letter  of  November  14,  with  estimates  for  printing  our  college 
annual,  was  brought  before  the  class  yesterday.  We  voted  to  accept  your 
bid  for  500  copies  at  $2.75;  the  book  to  have  128  pages,  including  about 
twenty  full-page  cuts;  the  paper  to  be  your  medium  weight;  the  binding  to 
be  dark  blue  cloth  with  side  stamp  title  and  college  seal;  colored  end  papers 
to  match  the  cover. 

There  are  several  items  for  wtiich  vou  name  extra  charges.     Among  these 


i8o  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

we  accept  your  rate  of  $90  for  an  extra  eight-page  form,  in  case  we  find  it 
necessary  to  run  it.  We  also  agree  to  make  the  price  of  the  book  $2.95  in 
case  we  decide  to  use  the  extra  hea\y  paper  of  your  third  sample.  That  will 
depend  on  our  income  from  alumni  subscriptions. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  cannot  see  the  reason  for  charging  us  full  price 
for  copies  above  500  since  you  base  your  price  on  the  guarantee.  Is  it  not 
reasonable  for  you  to  allow  us  something  for  your  saving  in  composition 
and  half  tones  on  an  extra  hundred?  Surely  your  presswork,  paper,  and 
binding  would  cost  you  just  the  same  for  the  additional  copies  as  for  the 
first  500,  and  the  saving  on  other  items  ought  to  show  in  the  figure. 

Again,  we  notice  that  you  expect  to  charge  us  at  the  rate  of  $1.75  an  hour 
for  all  time  spent  in  making  corrections  except  actual  variations  fiom  our 
copy.  Is  not  the  rate  excessive?  We  should  like  to  have  you  define  precisely 
what  is  meant  by  alterations  from  copj^ 

There  are  two  items  in  regard  to  cost  that  are  not  clear  from  your  letter, 
(i)  Does  your  estimate  include  the  delivery  of  the  books?  If  not,  can  you 
give  us  an  idea  what  the  freight  charges  would  amount  to?  (2)  Would  it 
cost  more  to  have  the  cover  stamped  in  gilt  instead  of  in  yellow?  If  so, 
how  much  more? 

We  note  your  inquiries  in  regard  to  the  date  of  publication,  and  the 
earUest  date  at  which  we  can  begin  sending  copy  and  photographs.  The 
book  should  be  ready,  if  possible,  by  April  i;  in  any  case  before  May  i. 
There  will  not  be  much  copy  before  the  holidays,  if  any.  We  will  try  to 
have  some  of  the  fraternity  articles  ready  before  that  if  possible.  As  to  the 
copy  for  the  middle  form  pages  with  the  red  borders,  >'ou  can  hardly  expect 
that  before  February.  It  will  consist  chiefly  of  dramatic  and  musical  stuff. 
About  how  long  will  it  take  after  the  last  copy  is  in  before  you  can  get  the 
book  printed  and  bound? 

As  to  type,  the  body  of  the  book  is  to  be  set  in  10  point-  The  "grinds," 
which  will  be  run  in  among  the  advertising  pages,  are  to  be  in  8  point. 

In  regard  to  the  half  tones,  we  understand  that  the  screen  depends  on 
the  grade  of  pajier  used.  If  you  can  get  satisfactory  results  with  the  finest 
screen  on  the  medium  weight  paper,  then  j^ou  can  go  ahead  with  the  cuts; 
otherwise  you  will  have  to  wait  until  we  know  whether  we  can  afford  the 
extra  heavy  grade.  I  am  sending  you  by  express  eighteen  faculty  portraits 
and  a  photograph  of  the  library.  The  faculty  cuts  are  to  be  ovals  two  inches 
wide;  the  library  is  to  be  a  full  page. 

We  shall  expect  good  work  from  your  company,  and  do  not  doubt  that 
you  will  l^elp  us  to  get  out  a  book  that  will  break  the  college  record. 

Very  truly  yours, 

James  Spencer. 


LETTER- WRITING  i8i 

The  revised  letter  is  longer  than  the  other  because  of  the  in- 
clusion of  the  terms  of  the  bid  and  other  necessary  specifica- 
tions, and  yet,  by  reason  of  its  logical  arrangement  and  para- 
graphing it  will  require  a  shorter  time  to  read  and  to  answer. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  paragraphs  in  business  letters  tend  to  be 
shorter  than  in  other  exposition.  Most  of  them  require  no 
development.  Each  distinct  topic  demands  a  paragraph,  and 
there  may  be  four  or  five  on  a  typewritten  page. 

Material  deaUng  with  so  many  distinct  topics  as  this  is  often 
divided  between  two  letters.  The  paragraphs  dealing  with  the 
price  are  intended  for  the  estimator  or  the  cost  department; 
those  bearing  on  the  date  of  publication,  type,  and  illustrations 
will  go  to  other  employees  of  the  printing  house.  While  it  is 
common  enough  in  any  business  establishment  to  receive  letters 
of  this  sort,  which  have  to  be  passed  round  from  one  desk  to 
another,  a  more  convenient  practice  is  to  confine  each  letter  to 
a  single  branch  of  the  subject. 

131.  Avoidance  of  stereotyped  phrases.  So  far  as  possible 
the  first  and  last  sentences  of  a  business  letter  should  be  free 
from  set  forms  of  expression.  The  first  sentence  must  indicate 
the  subject  of  the  letter,  and,  if  it  is  a  letter  of  reply,  must 
acknowledge  receipt  of  the  correspondent's  inquiry.  Yet  busi- 
ness houses  now  carefully  avoid  such  phrases  as  "Your  esteemed 
favor  of  the  loth  is  at  hand  and  in  reply  would  say."  The 
principle  underlying  this  change  in  business  correspondence  is 
that  variety  in  expression  suggests  a  personal  touch  rather  than  a 
mechanical  routine. 

This  principle  also  tends  to  lessen  the  frequency  of  what  may 
be  called  the  participial  close  in  the  last  sentence  of  a  letter, 
before  the  complimentary  close.  The  participial  close,  such  as 
"Thanking  you  in  advance  for  .  .  .  "or  "Hoping  to  receive 
your  valued  order  ..."  or  "Assuring  you  of  our  interest,"  is 
undesirable  because  it  has  been  overdone.  When,  for  special 
reasons,  it  seems  to  be  the  best  ending,  the  participial  phrase 


1 82  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

should  always  be  followed  by  "I  am,"  or  "we  are,"  on  the  line 
preceding  "Very  truly  yours,"  in  order  that  the  sentence  may 
be  grammatically  complete.  But  it  is  usually  preferable  to 
close  a  letter  with  a  complete  sentence  ending  with  a  period. 
Not  only  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end,  but  also  throughout 
the  letter,  hackneyed  phrases  should  be  avoided.  Such  expres- 
sions, for  example,  as  "the  same"  or  "same"  instead  of  "it" 
or  "them";  "as  per"  instead  of  "according  to";  "along  this  line" 
instead  of  "on  this  subject" —  these  and  many  others  dear  to 
the  heart  of  the  commercial  letter-writer  of  the  past  are  now 
going  out  of  use.  Better  English  in  business  is  demanded  by 
the  improved  standards  of  education.  Not  merely  freedom  from 
errors  and  a  degree  of  force  are  now  requisite  for  success  in  this 
field,  but  also  flexibility  of  style  and  studied  courtesy  of  expres- 
sion. 

132.  Exercise  in  business  letter  writing.  Write  a  business 
letter  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  using  unruled  letter  or 
commercial  size  paper.  Suitable  margins  should  be  left  at 
top,  bottom,  and  both  sides  of  each  page.  Neatness  of  form 
should  be  combined  with  clearness  and  courtesy  in  expression. 
In  any  case  which  seems  to  call  for  division  of  the  material  two 
shorter  letters  may  be  written  instead  of  one  long  one. 

Data  for  Business  Letters 

1.  An  expensive  camera  has  proved  disappointing  in  that  its  lens  and 

shutter  have  not  developed  the  guaranteed  speed,  and  that  the  lens  has  not 
a  wide  enough  angle  for  city  views.  The  writer  addresses  a  letter  to  the 
camera  company  complaining  of  defects,  making  specific  comments  upon 
inclosed  prints  showing  some  of  his  failures,  and  inquiring  as  to  terms  of 
an  exchange  for  a  better  camera. 

2.  An  athletic  manager  (track)  is  arranging  the  terms  of  a  joint  meet 
in  another  city.  Questions  of  date,  place,  expenses,  and  eligibility  are 
under  discussion.  One  man  on  his  team  has  been  protested  on  the  ground 
that  he  has  received  money  as  playground  director,  another  on  the  ground 
that  he  has  already  been  four  years  in  college  athletics.  The  manager 
answers  questions,  meets  objections,  and  makes  further  inquiries. 


LETTER-WRITING  183 

3.  A  student  has  been  offered  the  agency  for  his  city  of  a  portable 
aluminum  typewriter  selling  at  $50.  He  desires  to  know  specifically  how 
it  compares  with  other  machines  with  which  he  would  have  to  compete; 
how  far  he  would  be  permitted  to  make  allowances  for  old  machines  taken 
in  exchange;  how  the  commissions  are  reckoned  on  installment  payments; 
etc.  He  writes  to  the  manufacturers  commentmg  on  their  offer  and  making 
inquiries. 

4.  A  student  who  has  been  considering  social  or  philanthropic  work  as 
a  vocation  has  read  an  account  of  a  training  school  for  social  workers  which 
offers  free  scholarships  on  certain  terms.  He  writes  explaining  why  he  desires 
to  enter  such  work,  and  what  his  college  plans  are;  inquirmg  about  the  terms 
of  the  scholarship,  the  expenses  of  living  in  the  city  where  the  school  is 
located,  and  the  desirability  of  specializing  in  college  as  a  preparation  for 
such  a  profession. 

5.  A  student  is  arranging  by  letter  for  a  banquet  of  seventy-five  covers 
to  be  served  by  a  city  caterer.  Matters  of  price,  details  of  menu,  service, 
decorations,  guarantee,  terms  of  payment,  are  considered. 

6.  A  chairman  of  an  entertainment  committee  of  a  club  or  other  social 
organization  corresponds  with  an  agency  regarding  various  lectures,  concerts, 
and  other  attractions  for  a  season.  Prices,  dates,  character  of  audiences, 
subjects,  guarantees,  hotel  accommodations,  lighting  of  auditorium  and 
stage,  and  methods  of  advertising,  are  among  the  points  considered. 

7.  A  student  who  has  lost  several  weeks'  time  on  account  of  illness 
writes  to  the  dean  or  to  an  instructor  regarding  various  changes  in  his  sched- 
ule for  subsequent  terms  that  will  be  made  necessary.  The  consequences 
of  these  are  discussed  in  some  detail. 

8.  A  student  with  some  knowledge  of  chemistry  has  been  asked  by  a 
friend  who  is  teaching  chemistry  in  a  small  country  high  school  to  get  from 
supply  houses  in  the  city  estimates  for  the  complete  equipment  of  a  labor- 
atory for  elementary  instruction.  He  writes  to  a  wholesale  house  a  full 
description  of  the  furniture,  apparatus,  glassware,  and  supplies  needed, 
inquiring  as  to  qualities,  prices,  discounts,  shipment,  etc.  (Lists  of  material 
under  each  head  should  be  in  neat  tabular  form.) 

9.  A  letter  similar  to  the  preceding  regarding  the  equipment  of  a  manual 
training  shop  for  wood  and  iron  working. 

10.  A  letter  to  an  electrical  contracting  firm  asking  for  prices  on  a  com- 
plete electric  lighting  installation  for  a  large  country  residence:  dynamo 
operated  by  a  gasoline  engine,  storage  batteries,  wiring  according  to  the  most 
approved  usage,  fixtures  of  various  specified  patterns  and  grades,  shades,  wall 
switches  at  definite  points.  This  letter  should  be  accompanied  by  rough 
floor  plans  to  show  the  location  of  the  conduits  and  outlets. 


1 84  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

11.  A  member  of  the  house  committee  of  a  club  or  fraternity  writes  to 
a  building  contractor  for  an  estimate  on  specified  repairs  and  alterations, 
such  as  a  new  roof,  gutters  and  conductors,  new  porch,  moving  a  partition, 
cutting  a  new  door,  laying  and  finishing  hardwood  flooring.  Floor  plans 
and  dimensions  must  be  given. 

12.  The  organizer  of  a  four  weeks'  camping  party  of  eight  persons  in  a 
mountain  forest  four  miles  from  a  railroad  asks  an  estimate  on  a  complete 
equipment  from  an  outfitter.  Inquiries  are  made  concerning  the  merits  of 
different  grades  of  tents,  camp  furniture,  cooking  utensils,  canned  goods, 
fishing  tackle. 

13.  A  resident  in  a  certain  city  or  town  answers  at  length  an  inquiry 
from  a  correspondent  in  another  state  concerning  the  advantages  of  the 
place  for  establishing  a  canning  factory  (or  a  cement  block  factory,  a  book- 
store, a  printing  establishment,  a  new  daily  paper,  a  moving  picture  theater, 
etc.).  The  size  and  character  of  the  population,  transportation  facilities, 
water  and  electric  power,  price  of  coal,  proximity  to  raw  materials,  existing 
supply  and  demand,  labor  conditions,  are  some  of  the  factors  entering  into 
the  problem. 

14.  The  representative  of  a  fraternity,  society,  church,  or  other  organ- 
ization writes  an  invitation  to  a  state  or  national  body  for  the  holding  of  an 
annual  convention.  Railroad  and  hotel  facilities  and  prices,  public  interest 
in  the  cause,  special  reasons  for  the  choice  of  this  particular  place,  will  be 
explained. 

15.  A  letter  replying  to  a  friend  who  has  requested  a  complete  plan  for 
advertising  and  selling  a  certain  manufactured  article  in  a  given  territory. 
It  is  assumed  that  a  given  capital  of  S5000  or  $10,000  is  to  be  spent  within 
the  district  for  putting  the  aiticle  on  the  market.  Magazine,  newspaper, 
and  billboard  advertising,  plan  for  employing  and  routing  salesmen,  manage- 
ment of  mail  order  business,  cost-accounting  system,  are  some  of  the  topics 
that  may  be  treated.  Let  the  article  be  an  electric  vacuum  cleaner  at  a  low 
price,  or  an  adjustable  school  chair,  or  a  household  convenience  of  some 
sort. 

16.  A  citizen  writes  to  a  newspaper  for  pubUcation  a  letter  criticis- 
ing the  methods  of  street-paving  in  vogue,  opposing  the  laying  of  a  certain 
kind  of  pavement  on  a  certain  street,  and  explaining  the  better  methods  used 
in  some  other  city  with  which  he  is  familiar. 

17.  The  purchaser  of  a  motor  car  or  a  motor  boat  writes  to  the  manu- 
facturers inquiring  as  to  certain  defects  of  operation,  expressing  his  approval 
of  some  features,  inquiring  as  to  the  expediency  and  cost  of  certain  alterations 
in  equipment. 


LETTER- WRITING  185 

18.  The  owner  of  a  house  which  is  for  sale  writes  in  reply  to  an  advertise- 
ment a  description  of  the  house,  names  his  price  and  terms,  and  compares 
the  property  with  other  similar  houses  on  the  market. 

19.  One  writes  to  a  lawyer  inquiring  if  any  legal  cause  of  action  can  be 
based  upon  an  act  of  trespass,  violation  of  contract,  personal  injury,  or  other 
claim,  which  is  explained  in  detail. 

20.  Obtaining  by  permission  a  number  of  real  business  letters  from  the 
files  of  a  business  concern,  the  student  chooses  a  suitable  one,  and  writes  a 
reply  based  on  his  knowledge  of  the  business.  This  is  the  best  assignment 
in  the  list  for  those  who  can  get  good  letters  and  have  the  information  neces- 
sary to  answer  them. 

133.  Formal  social  notes.  The  commonest  occasions  on 
which  students  have  to  write  social  notes  in  connection  with 
their  college  life  are  enumerated  in  the  following  list: 

(i)  A  note  requesting  a  lady  to  act  as  patroness  for  a  college 
dance,  play,  or  concert. 

(2)  A  note  inviting  a  member  of  the  faculty,  or  the  wife 
of  a  member  of  the  faculty,  to  attend  a  dinner  as  a  guest  of  a 
class,  fraternity,  or  other  college  organization. 

(3)  A  note  accepting  or  declining  a  formal  (third  person)  in- 
vitation to  any  social  afifair. 

(4)  A  note  accepting  or  declining  an  informal  (second  person) 
invitation. 

(5)  A  note  addressed  to  an  older  person  with  whom  one  is 
not  well  acquainted,  expressing  gratitude  for  some  service  re- 
ceived or  hospitality  enjoyed;  as,  for  example,  a  note  to  the 
mother  of  a  friend  at  whose  house  the  writer  has  been  a  week- 
end guest. 

With  reference  to  the  first  two  of  these  types,  the  following 
suggestions  may  not  be  out  of  place.  An  invitation  coming  from 
a  fraternity,  sorority,  or  class  may  properly  be  written  in  the 
second  person,  beginning  ''My  dear  Mrs.  ..."  and  signed  by 
the  president  or  secretary  of  the  organization,  or  a  member  of 
the  committee,  even  though  no  personal  acquaintance  exists. 
The  post-office  address  of  the  writer  should  always  be  given  in 


i86  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

order  that  the  addressee  may  know  how  to  address  the  envelope 
containing  the  reply.  Even  if  the  invitation  is  written  in  the 
third  person,  as  it  may  equally  well  be,  the  letter  or  card  should 
always  include,  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner,  the  name  of  the 
person  to  whom  the  reply  is  to  be  directed,  with  his  address: 
"Please  reply  to  Mr.  .  .  .  Street."  The  reason  is,  of  course, 
the  awkwardness  of  having  no  suitable  outside  address  for  the 
envelope.  It  is  very  thoughtless  to  put  a  person  from  whom 
one  asks  a  favor  in  the  position  of  addressing  an  envelope  to 
"Pi  Eta  Fraternity,  Jones  College,"  or  "Junior  Class,  Brooks 
University."  Such  an  address  may  reach  the  proper  persons 
in  time,  but  no  business-like  man  or  woman  cares  to  send  out 
mail  with  so  crude  a  designation. 

In  replying  to  letters  of  invitation,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
a  written  invitation  in  the  third  person  should  be  answered  in 
the  third  person;  one  in  the  second  person  should  be  answered  in 
the  second.  There  must  be  no  mixing  of  the  two  in  the  same 
letter.  But  a  printed  or  engraved  third-person  invitation  which 
contains  the  name  and  address  of  the  person  in  charge  may 
sometimes  be  best  answered  in  a  second-person  note  addressed 
to  him.  Such  would  be  the  case  if  it  seemed  necessar\-  to  explain 
in  some  detail  the  reason  for  declining  an  invitation.  In  general, 
third  person  replies  are  likely  to  seem  more  formal  and  stiff  than 
the  occasion  demands;  and  for  that  reason  third-person  invita- 
tions should  be  confined  to  formal  occasions. 

Letters  of  thanks  addressed  to  persons  with  whom  one  is 
but  slightly  acquainted  are  not  on  that  account  to  be  stiff  or 
stilted  in  phraseology.  They  are  formal,  in  the  sense  that  they 
are  dictated  by  an  obligatory  social  form,  but  will  fail  entirely 
of  their  purpose  unless  they  seem  sincere.  Gratitude  and  appre- 
ciation for  the  courtesies  received  or  the  hospitality  enjoyed 
should  be  expressed  simply  and  heartily.  The  proper  salutation 
for  such  letters  is  "Dear  Mrs.  ..."  or  "Dear  Mr.  .  .  .," 
and  the  conventional  formal  close  is  "Sincerely  yours." 


LETTER-WRITING  187 

Abbreviations,  such  as  Prof.,  and  Feb.,  and  A'^.  /.,  objec- 
tionable in  a  business  letter,  are  intolerable  in  a  formal  social 
note.  Even  here,  however,  house  numbers  are  always  expressed 
in  figures;  and  the  day  of  the  month  may  be  so  expressed  if 
preferred.  In  written  invitations  or  replies  there  is  no  oc- 
casion to  mention  the  year.  In  engraved  invitations  the  year 
and  the  day  are  spelled  out. 

134.  Friendly  letters.  Rhetorical  instruction  has  little  to  do 
with  informal  friendly  letters,  save  that  the  rules  regarding  the 
heading  and  the  salutation  apply  here  as  elsewhere,  and  that 
grammatical  errors  are  just  as  bad  in  a  letter  as  in  conversation. 
The  salutation  Dear  Friend  is  in  bad  form.  The  several  greet- 
ings for  friendly  letters,  in  order  of  increasing  intimacy,  are: 

My  dear  Mr.  Williams:  My  dear  Miss  Atkins: 

Dear  Mr.  Williams,  Dear  Miss  Atkins, 

My  dear  Williams,  Dear  Alice. 
Dear  Jack, 

Friendly  letters  of  the  less  intimate  sort  usually  close  with 
such  phrases  as  "Cordially  yours"  or  "Most  cordially  yours." 
Letters  written  to  intimate  friends  may  end  in  any  way  that 
preference  or  caprice  suggests. 

Friendly  letters  are  ordinarily  narrative  and  descriptive. 
They  owe  any  charm  they  may  possess,  aside  from  the  personal 
message  which  they  convey,  to  those  qualities  of  style  which 
create  interest  in  narration  and  description.  A  study  of  speci- 
mens of  the  best  friendly  letters,  such  as  those  collected  in 
The  Gentlest  Art  by  E.  V.  Lucas,  will  show  how  charming  an  art 
it  is.  Without  any  ambition  to  imitate,  or  to  write  like  a 
book,  the  college  student  may  well  try  to  put  vividness  and 
grace  into  his  personal  letters.  A  refreshing  absence  of  the 
monotonous  "I,"  the  colorless  slang,  and  the  bareness  of  un- 
pictorial  narrative,  may  soon  be  the  outcome  of  such  study. 
Friendly  letters  of  the  best  sort  give  an  opportunity  to  join 


1 88  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  larger  vocabulary  of  writing  with  the  larger  idiomatic 
freedom  of  conversation  in  a  manner  unparalleled  in  any  other 
species  of  composition.  They  should  show  the  best  there  is 
in  a  man.  Humor  too  quiet  to  make  an  impression  in  con- 
versation; pithy  sayings  too  homely  for  formal  writing;  whim- 
sicalities too  personal  for  public  speech,  and  deliberate  drolleries 
of  syntax  not  to  be  tolerated  in  other  writing:  all  these  are 
among  the  unique  privileges  of  the  letter  wTiter.  Good  letters 
are  good  talk,  minus  the  interruptions,  the  incomplete  sentences, 
the  ill-chosen  adjectives,  and  the  slang.  While  letters  have 
possibilities  that  conversation  lacks,  it  is  ordinarily  a  safe  rule 
to  write  as  one  would  talk  if  one  could,  if  the  right  words  would 
come  at  the  right  time. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  35.     Study  sections  127-132.     Write  a  business  letter  on 
one  of  the  subjects  suggested  in  section  132. 
Assignment  36.     Study  sections  133  and  134. 


CHAPTER  X 
COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH 

135,  Contractions  in  colloquial  English.  It  is  hardly  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  there  are  two  EngUsh  languages. 
They  have  much  in  common,  and  under  some  circumstances 
tend  to  run  together.  Their  differences,  however,  are  more 
extensive  than  is  generally  admitted  by  grammarians  and 
lexicographers.  These  two  languages  are  the  colloquial  and 
the  literary.  Literary  English  in  its  written  and  spoken  forms 
is  the  principal  subject  of  this  book,  as  it  is  of  all  textbooks 
of  rhetoric.  It  is  the  only  EngHsh  proper  for  writing  of  any 
sort  except  friendly  letters,  and  for  speech  of  any  sort  addressed 
to  large  groups  of  persons.  Colloquial  English,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  the  language  used  by  educated  speakers  in  conversation 
and  in  informal  public  address  to  small  groups.  Textbook 
writers  tacitly  assume  that  good  colloquial  English  comes 
naturally  to  those  who  study  the  principles  of  good  literary 
English.  They  content  themselves  by  mentioning  a  fev/  of  the 
contracted  verb-forms  tolerated  in  conversation.  The  fact  is 
that  the  differences  between  the  two  kinds  of  language  are  so 
considerable  that  a  single  chapter  is  inadequate  to  catalogue 
them. 

The  inflection  of  nouns  and  pronouns  in  colloquial  English  is 

identical  with  that  in  literary  English.     The  verb,  on  the  other 

hand,  shows  many  differences.    Among  these  the  contractions 

of  the  pronouns  and  of  the  adverb  not  with  the  auxiliaries  are 

familiar  to  all:  Pm,  you're,  he's,  she's,  we're,  they're,  I've,  you've, 

189 


igo  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

we've,  they've,  Pll,^  you'll,  he'll,  she'll,  we'll,^  they'll,  Vd,^  you'd, 
he'd,  we'd^  they'd,  aren't,"  isn't,  wasn't,  weren't,  don't,  doesn't, 
didn't,  sha'n't,  shouldn't,  won't,  wouldn't,  can't,  couldn't,  mayn't, 
mightn't,  haven't,  hasn't,  hadn't,  oughtn't.  Less  obvious  and 
more  interesting  are  some  of  the  liberties  which  colloquial 
English  takes  with  the  tenses  and  moods  of  formal  grammar. 
Among  these  the  future  tense  is  the  most  conspicuous. 

136.  Shall  and  will,  should  and  would.  The  following  state- 
ment covers  the  cases  in  which  errors  are  most  likely  to  occur: 

(i)  In  the  first  person  singular  and  plural  of  the  future  tense 
the  correct  auxiliarj^  is  shall,  except  in  making  a  definite  promise 
or  consenting  to  a  request. 

"I  shall  be  home  about  six." 
"Will  you  bring  home  an  evening  paper?" 
"Yes,  I  will  if  I  can  remember  it." 
"We  shall  be  glad  to  see  you." 

As  between  shall  SLnd.will  in  the  first  person,  a  simple  rule  to 
remember  is:  when  in  doubt,  use  shall. 

(2)  For  questions  in  the  future  tense  the  correct  form  is  shall 
you,  except  when  a  promise  is  requested. 

"Shall  you  be  away  all  summer?" 

"Yes,  I  shall  unless  I  have  to  come  back  on  business." 

"Will  you  write  to  me  often?" 

"I  certainly  will." 

(3)  As  between  should  and  would,  in  both  the  first  and 
second  person,  and  in  both  declarative  and  interrogative  sen- 
tences, the  correct  auxiliary  is  generally  should.  Would  is  to 
be  used  only  when  willingness  is  to  be  expressed  by  the  auxil- 

•  These  forms  are  contractions  with  will  and  would,  and  may  not  be  used  where 
usage  retiuires  shall  or  should. 

^  In  Great  Britain  the  colloquial  interrogative  form  aren't  I  appears  to  be  in  more  or 
less  reputable  use.  It  is  pronounced  in  the  English  fashion  without  any  r  sound,  and 
is  probably  to  be  regarded  as  a  missi)ellcd  contraction  of  am  not  I  (a'n't  I),  rather  than 
of  are  not  I.  This  curious  coUotiuialism  is  not  heard  in  the  United  States.  Since 
ain't  is  a  vulgarism  never  used  by  educated  people,  we  have  no  contracted  form  for  the 
interrogative  equivalent  of  I'm  not. 


COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH  191 

iary  alone  —  not  when  the  principal  verb  conveys  the  idea  of 
willingness. 

"Should  you  like  to  go  with  me  to  the  concert?  I  should  hke  very  much 
to  have  you." 

"I  should  be  delighted  to  go,  but  I  am  obhged  to  work  this  evening." 

"We  should  be  glad  to  hear  from  you  again,  particulaily  if  you  would  con- 
sider a  larger  order  on  even  more  favorable  terms." 

"Would  you  go  if  they  offered  to  pay  your  expenses?" 

"I  would,  but  they  are  not  likely  to  offer." 

When  in  doubt  as  between  should  and  would,  use  should. 

(4)  As  between  should  and  would  in  the  third  person,  in 
indirect  quotation,  that  auxiliary  is  used  which  corresponds  to 
the  auxiliary  properly  used  by  the  original  speaker :  if  he  used, 
or  ought  to  have  used,  shall,  this  becomes  should  in  indirect 
quotation;  only  in  case  he  properly  used  will  is  the  corresponding 
form  would  employed  in  reporting  his  statement 

Direct  quotation:  The  chairman  said:  "I  shall  be  ready  to  report  next 
month." 

Indirect  quotation:  The  chairman  said  he  should  be  ready  to  report 
next  month. 

Direct  quotation:  When  I  asked  him  to  consider  the  matter  promptly, 
he  said:  "I  will  call  the  committee  together  at  once." 

Indirect  quotation:  When  I  asked  him  to  consider  the  matter  promptly, 
he  said  he  would  call  the  committee  together  at  once. 

It  is  the  business  of  every  student  to  learn  and  to  apply  these 
rules  in  colloquial  as  well  as  in  formal  EngUsh.  Conformity  to 
the  principles  that  have  grown  up  in  this  matter  is  expected  of 
all  educated  persons.  The  informality  of  conversation  does  not 
justify  such  errors  as  "We  will  be  too  tired  to  go"  or  "I  will  be 
pleased  to  help  you."  But  the  established  rules  for  the  use  of 
shall  and  should'  in  questions  and  in  indirect  quotations  are 
often  evaded  in  conversation  by  educated  speakers.  It  is  cor- 
rect to  say,  "Shall  you  be  at  home  this  evening?"  It  is  incorrect 
to  say,  "Will  you,"  unless  a  definite  promise  is  asked  for.  We 
avoid  the  slight  stiffness  of  "shall  you  "by  the  far  more  commonly 


192  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

heard  form,  "Are  you  going  to  be  at  home  this  evening?" 
Similarly,  in  indirect  quotations  it  is  correct  to  say,  "He  told  me 
he  should  be  out  of  town  about  a  week,"  and  incorrect  to  say, 
"He  told  me  he  would  be  out  of  town."  The  ordinary  equivalent 
in  conversation  is,  "He  told  me  he  was  going  to  be  out  of  town." 
This  tendency  to  avoid  shall  and  should,  even  on  the  part  of 
those  who  know  the  correct  usage,  is  one  of  the  curious  phases 
of  the  present  transition  period  in  English  grammar.  Students 
of  EngHsh  should  beware  of  the  notion  that  there  is  any  affecta- 
tion in  strict  obedience  to  the  present  rules,  or  any  excuse  for 
violation  of  them ;  but  they  may  well  recognize  the  existence  of 
what  is  almost  an  alternative  future  tense  formed  by  gowg  with 
the  infinitive.  The  French  have  the  same  idiom  in  conversation. 
137.  The  disappearing  subjunctive  mood.  Few  traces  of  the 
subjunctive  mood  remain  in  colloquial  English.  Its  place  has 
been  largely  taken  by  the  indicative.  In  the  dependent  clause 
of  present  and  future  conditional  sentences,  the  indicative  mood 
is  found  where  the  condition  is  one  of  reasonable  probability, 
the  verb-phrase  with  should  where  it  is  of  remote  probability. 
Thus  in  colloquial  English  we  find  the  following  usages: 

If  he's  there  when  I  come,  I'll  give  it  to  him. 
If  he  takes  more  than  he  needs,  he'll  be  sorry. 
If  he  should  call  while  I'm  away,  ask  him  to  wait. 
If  he  should  take  that  road,  he'd  surely  be  too  late. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact,  we  still 
hear  the  past  subjunctive: 

If  he  were  only  a  little  stronger,  he  could  do  it  all  right. 
If  he  took  more  pains  with  his  work,  he'd  be  the  best  man. 

Notice  that  the  colloquial  tendency  away  from  the  subjunc- 
tive produces  such  equivalents  as  these  for  the  last  two  sentences: 

If  he'd  only  been  a  little  stronger,  he  could  liave  done  it  all  right. 
If  he'd  only  take  more  pains  with  his  work,  he'd  be  the  best  man. 


COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH  193 

But  it  is  not  good  colloquial  English  to  say,  "If  he  was  only 
a  little  stronger."  The  verb  to  be  is  more  conservative  than 
other  verbs,  and  does  not  permit  the  substitution  of  the  indica- 
tive for  the  subjunctive  in  the  past  tense  as  it  does  in  the  present. 

Not  only  is  the  subjunctive  uncommon  in  conditional  clauses; 
it  has  also  nearly  disappeared  from  dependent  noun-clauses  in- 
troduced by  the  conjunction  that.  Where  in  literary  English 
we  find,  "His  position  requires  that  he  be  well  acquainted  with 
the  business,"  colloquial  English  inserts  a  should  before  he. 
"He  demanded  that  we  give  up  the  house  at  once"  becomes 
"should  give."  In  fact,  if  it  were  not  for  the  purely  subjunc- 
tive forms,  "if  I  were"  "if  he  were,"  which  cannot  be  mistaken 
for  indicatives,  we  should  hardly  have  any  unmistakable  sub- 
junctive mood  left  in  colloquial  English. 

138.  Potential  auxiliaries  in  colloquial  English.  One  point 
at  which  colloquial  English  tends  to  differ  from  literary  English 
in  the  use  of  the  auxiliaries  is  the  strong  drift  toward  substituting 
can  for  may  in  permissive  phrases;  a  survival  of  juvenile  usage. 
The  child  says,  "Can  I  stay  up  late  to-night?"  The  parent  is 
altogether  apt  to  reply,  "Yes,  you  can  if  you'll  take  a  nap,"  or 
"No,  you  can't."  When  the  child  is  in  school  or  college  he  still 
says,  "Can  I  write  with  a  pencil?"  "Can  I  borrow  your  notes?" 
This  is  of  course  incorrect,  and  should  be  resisted,  for  the  good 
reason  that  it  is  a  tendency  toward  the  impoverishment  of  the 
language,  subtracting  from  it  the  best  means  of  expressing  an 
idea. 

In  general,  when  we  are  called  upon  to  decide  whether  a  col- 
loquialism which  seems  to  be  spreading  should  be  accepted  or 
resisted,  the  test  is  that  just  indicated:  does  the  word  or  phrase 
add  to  the  resources  of  the  language,  or  lessen  them?  Does  it 
force  one  word  to  stand  for  two  quite  distinct  ideas,  such  as 
permission  and  power,  or  does  it  on  the  contrary  estabhsh  a  new 
way  of  saying  explicitly  what  has  been  heretofore  imphcitly 
hinted?     Man  was  not  made  for  words,  but  words  for  man, 


194  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

and  by  man.  All  the  grammars  and  dictionaries  in  Christendom 
cannot  prevent  him  from  doing  what  he  chooses  with  them; 
they  can  only  caution  him  to  be  quite  sure  that  he  really  does 
choose,  in  a  case  where  the  choice  seems  to  be  a  loss  without  a 
corresponding  gain. 

Verb-phrases  of  obligation  are  more  numerous  in  colloquial 
English  than  in  literary  English.  We  have  not  only  "I  must 
take,"  and  "I  should  take,"  and  'T  ought  to  take,"  but  also 
"I'm  to  take,"  and  'T  have  to  take."  In  this  last  phrase,  the 
word  have  is  never  abbreviated,  since  it  is  emphatic.  We  never 
say  "I've  to  take."i  To  these  five  verb-phrases  of  obligation 
must  be  added  a  sixth,  if  one  is  to  be  perfectly  honest  in  regis- 
tering the  facts  of  colloquial  English,  the  phrase  "I've  got  to 
take."  Observation  shows  that  many  educated  speakers  who 
never  allow  themselves  to  add  got  to  the  verb  have  in  the  sense 
of  possession  or  ownership  do  add  got  in  the  sense  of  obligation. 
Thus,  "I've  got  a  bad  cold"  is  not  standard  colloquial  English, 
but  "I've  got  to  take  something  for  this  cold"  is  heard  when 
the  other  phrase  is  not.  "I've  got  my  speech  in  my  pocket" 
is  not  in  good  usage,  though  common  among  educated  men. 
"I've  got  to  make  a  speech  to-night"  is  regarded  as  less  objec- 
tionable. "You've  got  too  much  water  in  that  mixture"  is 
careless.  "You've  got  to  work  harder  than  that  if  you  expect 
to  stay"  is  deliberate.  The  safer  equivalent  is,  of  course,  "You 
must  work  harder"  or  "You'll  have  to  work  harder." 

139.  Syntax  of  the  colloquial  sentence.  Colloquial  English 
favors  simple  and  compound  sentences  as  against  complex. 
Although  the  syntax  of  literary  English  requires  that  an  asser- 
tion should  not  be  joined  by  and  to  a  preceding  assertion  with 
which  it  is  not  logically  coordinate  (Section  37),  this  principle  is 
relaxed  in  conversation ;  relaxed,  not  suspended.  Good  speakers 
never  allow  themselves  to  talk  in  long  strings  of  coordinate 

'  Curiously  enough,  because  of  tlie  stress  on  the  verb,  careless  pronunciation  sounds 
the  words  have  and  has  in  these  phrases  as  if  they  ended  in  voiceless  consonants,  "I 
haff  to  go,"  "He  hass  to  go," 


COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH  195 

clauses  all  joined  by  and  or  but  or  so.  Their  logical  instinct  leads 
them,  even  in  familiar  talk,  to  throw  many  subordinate  points 
into  subordinate  clauses.  Yet  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to 
coordination  when  the  subject  discussed  is  not  such  as  to  demand 
the  careful  framing  of  sentences.  For  example,  compare  the 
following  sentences  in  the  two  forms: 

Formal:  Although  the  compensation  is  larger,  the  expenses  are  heavier. 

Colloquial:  He  gets  more  money,  but  he  has  to  spend  more. 

Formal:  While  his  rank  is  higher,  his  powers  are  really  not  increased. 

Colloquial:  He  has  a  higher  rank,  but  he  can't  do  any  more  than  he  could 
before. 

Formal:  When  the  molds  have  been  properly  greased,  the  concrete  is 
poured  in  and  tamped  down. 

Colloquial:  They  grease  the  molds  to  prevent  sticking,  and  then  they 
pour  in  the  concrete  and  tamp  it  down. 

Formal:  Since  his  age  is  sufficient  (or.  His  age  being  sufficient)  to  entitle 
him  to  a  pension,  he  expects  to  retire  at  the  completion  of  the  present  task. 

Colloquial:  He's  already  old  enough  to  draw  a  pension;  sol  j^g'g  going  to 
retire  when  he  gets  through  with  this  job. 

Formal:  They  seized  the  arsenal  in  order  that  a  supply  of  ammunition 
might  be  insured. 

Colloquial:  They  wanted  to  have  plenty  of  ammunition,  and  sqI  they 
captured  the  arsenal. 

Formal:  Fearing  lest  the  strikers  might  overpower  the  local  police,  the 
mayor  called  on  the  governor  for  assistance. 

Colloquial:  The  mayor  was  afraid  the  strikers  might  get  the  better  of  the 
police,  and  asked  the  governor  for  help. 

Another  difference  of  syntax  between  literary  and  colloquial 
English  is  that  periodic  sentences  are  not  common  in  conversa- 
tion. The  rapid  give-and-take  of  familiar  talk  requires  that 
the  meaning  of  sentences  shall  not  be  suspended  to  the  end. 
The  balanced  sentence  likewise  represents  a  more  studied  and 
deliberate  type  of  thinking  than  conversation  implies.  In  talk- 
ing we  instinctively  bring  the  main  idea  near  the  beginning  of 

1  It  is  this  colloquialism,  the  "so-sentence"  that  forms  one  of  the  most  widespread 
crudities  in  the  written  English  of  college  students.  It  should  be  carefully  avoided  in 
writing.  See  Section  38.  Such  sentences  are  allowable  in  conversation  if  not  carried 
to  excess. 


196  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  sentence;  qualifying  clauses  and  minor  details  follow  rather 
than  precede.  It  is  the  method  of  the  newspaper:  the  whole 
story  in  the  first  sentence,  or  "lead,"  with  the  details  in  order 
of  decreasing  importance.  Nothing  is  so  tedious  in  conversation 
as  to  listen  to  a  man  piling  up  subordinate  clauses  in  his  an.xi- 
ety  not  to  be  misunderstood.  There  are  people  who  talk  like 
this: 

While  I  would  not  for  a  moment  imply  that  Smith  is  not  competent,  and 
while  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  he  would  be  faithful,  yet  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  this  work  requires  special  care,  and  that  Brown  is  well  known 
to  be  expert,  I  should  prefer  to  have  him  elected. 

This  is  what  is  known  as  "dictation  Enghsh,"  arising  from 
the  habit  of  dictating  to  an  amanuensis.  The  colloquial  equiv- 
alent would  be  more  like  this: 

I'd  rather  see  Brown  elected  myself.  No  doubt  Smith's  a  competent 
man,  and  faithful  too.  But  this  work  calls  for  special  care,  and  Brown's  an 
expert;  everybody  admits  that. 

Other  differences  in  syntax  are  seen  in  the  matter  of  relative 
clauses.  Colloquial  English  prefers  that  to  ivho.  In  literary 
English,  according  to  some  grammarians,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
limit  the  relative  that  to  restrictive  clauses.  In  conversation 
the  nominative  case  of  the  relative  pronoun  who  is  not  common, 
and  the  possessive  and  oljjective  are  almost  unheard.  The  fol- 
lowing sentences  will  illustrate  the  differences  arising  from  this 
curious  avoidance  of  who  as  a  relative. 

Literary:  My  brother,  who  is  superintendent  of  a  cotton  mill,  tells  me 
that  there  is  very  little  child  labor. 

Collcquial:  My  brother's  superintendent  of  a  cotton  mill,  and  he  says 
there's  very  little  child  labor. 

Literary:  General  Grant,  who  was  promoted  by  the  president  to  the  chief 
command,  immediately  made  preparations  for  an  attack. 

Colloquial:  The  president  promoted  General  Grant  to  the  command  of 
of  the  army,  and  he  began  at  once  to  get  ready  for  an  attack. 


COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH  197 

Literary:  Mr.  Madison,  whose  opinions  are  weU  known,  is  the  only 
opposing  candidate. 

Colloquial:  Mr.  Madison  is  the  only  opposing  candidate,  and  everybody 
knows  what  his  opinions  are. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  in  such  cases  as  these 
there  is  a  conscious  avoidance  of  the  one  form  and  a  choice  of 
the  other.  All  that  is  attempted  in  this  chapter  is  to  record 
actual  usage  as  it  is  found  among  educated  persons  in  familiar 
talk.  Why  some  of  these  differences  exist  it  would  be  hard  to 
e.xplain.  For  one  thing,  the  inflections  of  the  voice  in  conver- 
sation are  different  from  those  in  formal  speaking,  and  convey 
many  shades  of  meaning  which  in  literary  EngUsh  are  expressed 
by  subordinate  constructions.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  any 
man  from  using  in  conversation  the  forms  called  "literary." 
They  are  perfectly  correct,  and  are  used  in  formal  discourse  by 
all  careful  speakers.  The  only  point  is  that  conversation  per- 
mits —  not  demands  —  a  relaxing  of  some  of  the  finer  shades 
of  syntax ;  especially  is  the  subordination  of  one  idea  to  another 
less  emphasized.  A  certain  stiffness,  not  to  say  pedantry,  marks 
the  conversation  of  those  who  talk  precisely  as  they  write. 

140.  Common  errors  in  grammatical  agreement.  Among 
the  common  errors  in  colloquial  English  among  well-educated 
people  are  errors  of  agreement  in  number  between  subject  and 
verb,  pronoun  and  antecedent.  These  are  often  due  to  failure  to 
carry  in  the  mind  the  precise  form  of  the  words  already  uttered. 
Reasonable  allowance  is  made  by  all  sensible  persons  for  this 
factor.  It  seems  unnecessary,  however,  to  commit  such  obvious 
blunders  as  the  following: 

There's  all  kinds  of  crookedness  going  on  in  that  town. 

Every  man  and  woman  in  the  shop  put  on  their  hats  and  marched  out. 

This  datai  is  not  yet  complete. 

1  The  plural  noun  data  is  coming  to  be  used  as  a  singular  by  many  college-trained  men 
who  ought  to  know  better,  expecially  scientific  men.  It  is  the  kind  of  change  that  should 
be  resisted,  for  the  reason  that  the  idea  is  a  plural  idea,  denoting  a  number  of  distinct 
items  of  information  bearing  upon  a  subject. 


1 98  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

The  rule,  simple  in  theory  but  sometimes  puzzhng  in  applica- 
tion, is  that  a  verb  must  agree  in  number  with  its  simple  subject: 

(i)  Not  with  a  modifier  of  the  simple  subject.  (The  sim- 
ple subject  is  always  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which  with  its  modi- 
fiers constitutes  the  complete  subject.)  "The  president,  as 
well  as  his  advisers,  believes  that  further  delay  is  dangerous." 
But,  "The  president  and  his  advisers  believe  that  further  delay 
is  dangerous."  "The  college,  together  with  the  professional 
schools,  constitutes  the  university" — a  sentence  which  is 
grammatical  but  not  logical.  Better,  "The  college  and  the 
professional  schools  together  constitute  the  university." 

(2)  Not  with  a  predicate  nominative.  (A  predicate  nomina- 
tive is  a  substantive  standing  in  the  predicate,  after  the  verb 
to  be  or  some  equivalent,  and  describing  or  defining  the  subject, 
with  which  it  agrees  in  case,  but  not  necessarily  in  number.) 
"The  cause  of  the  delay  was  the  labor  troubles  of  the  past 
winter."  Such  a  sentence,  though  grammatical,  sometimes 
sounds  awkward,  and  may  usually  be  improved.  "The  delay 
was  due  to  the  labor  troubles  of  the  past  winter."  "The  labor 
troubles  of  the  past  winter  were  the  cause  of  the  delay." 

(3)  Not  with  both  members  of  a  compound  subject  separated 
by  or  or  nor.  These  correlatives  are  separative  or  distributive; 
hence,  when  each  is  followed  by  a  singular  noun,  the  verb  is 
singular,  being  construed  separately  with  each.  "Either  the 
father  or  the  son  is  responsible  for  the  damages."  When  one 
of  the  correlative  terms  is  singular  and  the  other  plural,  the 
verb  is  plural.  "One  or  more  of  the  students  are  likely  to  be 
included."  When  the  correlatives  are  pronouns  of  different 
person  and  number,  a  verb  should  be  supplied  for  each.  "Either 
he  is  liable,  or  we  are." 

141.  Agreement  in  sentences  containing  the  phrase  one  of 
the  The  commonest  of  all  errors  in  grammatical  agreement 
heard  among  educated  people  is  in  sentences  containing  the 


COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH  199 

phrase  one  of  the  followed  by  a  plural  noun  and  a  restrictive 
relative  clause  beginning  with  that.     Examples: 

Correct:  It  was  one  of  the  worst  storms  that  have  ever  been  seen  in  this 
vicinity. 

Correct:  This  is  one  of  the  experiments  that  test  a  student's  ability  to 
think  for  himself. 

Correct:  That  letter  is  one  of  the  things  that  lead  me  to  believe  him 
capable  of  anything. 

Correct:  The  building  is  one  of  the  last  that  survive  from  the  early  days 
of  the  colony. 

In  all  these  sentences  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  use  a  singular 
verb  after  that,  arising  from  the  mistaken  impression  that  the 
antecedent  of  that  is  the  pronoun  one.  The  antecedent  of  that 
is  the  plural  noun  immediately  preceding  it  (in  the  fourth  sen- 
tence the  antecedent  is  the  plural  noun  buildings  understood  after 
last).  Since  the  antecedent  is  plural,  that  is  plural,  and  a  plural 
verb  is  required. 

142.  Errors  in  the  use  of  conjunctions.  As  appears  incor- 
rectly as  a  substitute  for  that  or  whether  in  the  common  expression 
"I  don't  know  as  I  can  tell  you  just  when  it  happened."  But 
is  unnecessarily  prefixed  to  that  after  doubt.  "There's  no 
doubt  but  that  he  was  responsible."  Illiterate  persons  alter 
this  to  but  what.  As  though  is  carelessly  used  for  as  if.  I  J 
is  substituted  for  whether  in  cases  where  an  alternative  idea  is 
expressed.  Incorrect:  "I'm  not  sure  if  I  can  go  with  you." 
Because  is  wrongly  used  in  place  of  that  in  the  statement  of  a 
reason. 

Incorrect:  The  reason  he  failed  is  because  the  evidence  is  all  on  the  other 
side. 

Correct:  The  reason  he  failed  is  that  the  evidence  is  all  on  the  other  side. 

The  word  while  is  much  misused,  both  in  speaking  and  in 
writing.  It  means  either  during  the  time  that  (adverbial  use)  or 
although  (conjunction) :  conveying  either  an  idea  of  simultaneous 
time  or  a  concessive  relation.    Careless  speakers  and  writers 


20O  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

use  it  erroneously  as  an  equivalent  of  ajid,  or  of  a  semicolon  or  a 
period,  to  join  coordinate  ideas. 

Correct:  He  devoted  himself  to  unpacking  the  food,  while  the  rest  of 
the  party  went  off  to  hunt  for  firewood.     (Simultaneous  time.) 

Correct:  While  it  is  true  that  most  of  our  soldiers  crossed  in  British  ships, 
the  government  paid  a  good  price  for  their  passage.     (Concessive  relation.) 

Incorrect:  The  walls  were  decorated  with  yellow  bunting,  while  the  ceiling 
was  hung  with  blue.     (No  temporal  or  concessive  relation  intended.) 

Incorrect:  Jones  played  at  center,  while  Smith  and  Brown  were  at  the 
ends. 

Incorrect:  We  chose  ham  and  eggs,  while  they  ordered  corned  beef  hash. 

Of  course  the  commonest  of  all  colloquial  errors  in  the  choice 
of  conjunctions  is  the  habitual  use  of  and  to  begin  sentences, 
without  any  definite  intention  of  indicating  a  coordination  of 
ideas.  This  habit  of  filling  in  the  natural  pause  between 
sentences  with  atid  is  a  nerv^ous  mannerism  similar  to  the  initial 
why  of  class-room  recitation.  The  remedy  for  it  is  either  to 
suppress  it  by  conscious  effort,  or  to  supplant  it  by  suitable 
connective  adverbs  or  phrases. 

143.  Errors  in  the  use  of  prepositions.  Dijferent  than  is 
now  about  as  common  among  educated  Americans  as  the  estab- 
lished different  from.  It  js  objectionable  on  the  ground  that 
thanis  a  conjunction,  whereas  the  idea  of  separation  in  the  word 
different  calls  for  a  preposition  rather  than  a  word  of  comparison. 
The  English  usage  is  different  to,  never  heard  in  this  country. 
The  hackneyed  phrase  along  the  line  of  is  too  much  used  for 
the  single  preposition  abotil  or  in.  A  superfluous  in  appears 
among  young  people  in  the  phrase  in  back  of  (for  behind)  where 
the  in  is  perhaps  due  to  analogy  with  the  correct  phrase  in  front 
of.  A  meaningless  of  is  heard  after  the  preposition  off  in  such 
sentences  as  "He  jumped  off  of  a  trolley  car  while  it  was  in  mo- 
tion." Inasmuch  as  off  and  of  are  historically  the  same  word, 
the  absurdity  of  this  doubling  is  evident.  An  at  creeps  in  be- 
fore the  adverb  here  in  the  illiterate  expression  "Look  at  here." 


COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH 


20I 


A  superfluous  ^  is  sometimes  heard  after  regard  in  the  preposi- 
tional phrase  in  regard  to.  Such  errors,  although  apparently 
trivial,  sometimes  stamp  a  speaker  as  more  ignorant  than  he 
really  is,  and  on  that  account,  if  on  no  other,  should  be  avoided. 
144.  Diction.  The  vocabulary  of  colloquial  English  is  far 
smaller  than  that  of  formal  spoken  English,  as  that  is  far  smaller 
than  the  vocabulary  of  written  English.  In  particular,  there 
exist  side  by  side  in  the  language  pairs  of  words  of  which  the  one 
is  never  heard  in  conversation,  and  the  other  is  seldom  used  in 
formal  writing.  A  few  examples  of  these  two  distinct  vocabu- 
laries may  be  given  in  parallel  columns: 


Formal  English 

Colloquial  Englii 

obtain,  procure 

get 

prepare 

get  ready 

correct,  satisfactory 

all  righti 

brief 

short 

weary 

tired 

weep 

cry 

rise 

get  up 

retire 

go  to  bed 

cleanse 

clean 

complete 

finish,  get  through 

journalist 

newspaper  man 

propel 

drive 

depart 

leave,  go  away 

reside 

live 

return 

come  back,  get  back 

upon 

on 

since,  inasmuch  as 

because,  on  account  of 

discontinue,  cease 

stop,  quit 

resume 

take  up,  go  back  to 

desire,  wish 

want 

frugal 

economical 

145.     Slang.    Slang  finds  its  way  now  and  then  into  formal 
pubUc  address,   but  always  with  an  apology.     In  colloquial 

1  Two  words.     There  is  no  such  word  as  alright. 


202  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

English,  among  equals,  a  certain  amount  of  slang  is  natural 
The  test  is  always  this:  does  the  slang  word  or  phrase  express 
more  than  can  be  readily  conveyed  by  dictionary  English,  or 
J^less?  Language,  in  spite  of  pedants,  always  welcomes  the 
heightening  or  deepening  of  its  old  words,  or  the  adoption  of 
new  words,  to  make  good  the  inevitable  losses  of  time.  A  jus- 
tifiable slang  word  or  phrase  cannot  be  adequately  translated 
into  literary  English  without  a  labored  paraphrase.  "Isn't 
that  show  the  limit?"  is  a  colloquial  equivalent  for  an  essay  on 
the  degeneracy  of  the  modern  stage.  In  any  defense  of  the  use 
of  slang  in  familiar  conversation,  sensible  people  always  mean 
slang  that  is  recent,  pungent,  vivid,  and  free  from  vulgar  asso- 
ciations. Much  of  the  slang  that  one  hears  among  unthinking 
young  men  and  women  comes  from  the  haunts  of  thieves, 
gamblers,  and  degenerates.  The  songs  of  low-class  vaudeville 
contribute  their  share.  Race-tracks  supplya  constantly  chang- 
ing dialect  of  hazard  and  deceit.  Such  slang  is  like  the  dances 
copied  from  the  demi-monde  by  the  silly  sons  and  daughters 
of  parents  with  more  money  than  brains.  It  is  best  let  alone. 
Nine  times  out  of  ten  the  English  vocabulary  of  the  best  modern 
literature  is  adequate  for  the  most  animated  conversation.  The 
tenth  time  justifies  slang  —  within  limits.  The  trouble  with 
slang  is  that  it  must  be  kept  up  to  date,  and  one  who  keeps  up 
with  it  is  soon  unable  to  talk  anything  else.  He  forgets  his 
mother  tongue. 

146,  Conversation.  The  grammar  and  the  vocabulary  of 
good  colloquial  English  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding 
pages.  Avoidance  of  errors  in  speech  is,  however,  a  small  ele- 
ment in  good  conversation.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that 
conversation  among  friends  and  equals  will  take  care  of  itself. 
The  place  where  a  college  student  feels  himself  at  a  disadvantage 
is  with  strangers,  older  than  himself,  or  belonging  to  a  different 
social  class;  particularly  with  persons  of  more  general  informa- 
tion and  more  interests  than  his  own.     The  difficulty  here  is 


COLLOQUIAL  ENGLISH  203 

largely  a  matter  of  deficient  general  reading,  a  lack  of  reason- 
able acquaintance  with  current  affairs  such  as  should  be  gained 
from  the  newspapers  and  magazines.  It  is  in  part,  however,  a 
matter  of  deficient  tact  in  choosing  topics,  lack  of  courage  in 
introducing  them,  and  lack  of  ingenuity  in  following  up  the 
"leads"  offered  by  the  conversation. 

When  a  basis  of  common  interest  has  once  been  established, 
the  point  is  to  draw  out  one's  partner's  ideas  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  him  a  chance  to  talk  on  his  hobbies.  The  good  listener  is 
generally  reputed  a  good  talker.  People  like  to  talk  about  them- 
selves. If  they  are  well  bred,  they  will  not  do  so  without  pro- 
vocation. He  who  furnishes  the  provocation  is  immediately 
rated  as  a  good  fellow.  There  are,  of  course,  people  who  do  not 
have  to  be  encouraged  to  talk.  The  trouble  is  all  the  other  way ; 
one  strives  in  vain  to  stem  the  tide  of  reminiscence.  Their 
family  histories,  their  travels,  their  diseases,  and  their  grievances 
are  poured  forth  in  resistless  profusion.  The  victim  of  such 
talkers  does  not  need  practice  in  conversation ;  he  needs  skill  in 
the  art  of  escaping  from  a  bore  without  making  an  enemy. 

147.  Avoid  talking  shop.  In  talking  with  a  person  known  to 
be  expert  in  some  special  field,  one  may  well  ask  his  opinion  on 
a  question  of  public  interest  in  that  field,  but  there  is  a  danger 
in  raising  points  too  technical  for  brief  reply.  "Talking  shop" 
is  tedious  when  carried  to  excess,  whether  the  "shop"  is  one's 
own  or  one's  partner's.  It  is  not  complimentary  to  a  literary 
man  to  assume  that  he  can  talk  about  nothing  but  books. 
There  is  not  much  use  in  puzzling  one's  brains  trying  to  think 
of  scientific  remarks  to  make  to  a  chemist.  The  doctor  may 
not  appreciate  one's  well-meant  questions  about  the  public 
health  or  the  lately  discovered  bacteria;  and  even  the  minister 
may  not  be  flattered  by  obtrusive  references  to  his  parish.  The 
excellent  rhetorical  principle  of  adapting  discourse  to  one's 
audience  may  be  carried  too  far  if  not  tempered  with  a  Httle 
common  sense.     Men  like  to  be  thought  human,  unprofessional, 


204  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

many-sided.  Women  like  to  be  thought  serious,  interested  in 
things  that  are  worth  while,  public-spirited,  charitable.  Really 
great  men  are  simple,  and  no  one  need  be  afraid  of  them.  The 
only  kind  of  person  who  needs  to  be  treated  with  care  and 
exaggerated  deference  is  the  pompous  kind.  All  one  has  to 
do  with  him  is  to  let  him  talk,  and  to  salaam  at  the  proper 
times.  Nothing  could  be  easier,  and  scarcely  anything  more 
tiresome;  but  time  brings  an  end  to  all  things,  even  bores. 

148.  Conversation  in  novels.  Students  of  the  art  of  con- 
versation are  advised  to  read  the  novels  of  Jane  Austen  and 
Thomas  Hardy.  There,  rather  than  in  Scott,  or  Dickens,  or 
Thackeray,  or  George  Eliot,  they  will  find  real  talk,  the  talk 
of  simple  and  of  gentle  folk,  of  peasants  and  students,  of  people 
who  are  ridiculous  in  the  way  that  real  folks  are  ridiculous,  and 
clever  in  the  way  that  modern  men  and  women  can  be  clever. 
The  conversation  in  Hawthorne's  romances  is  a  model  of  simple 
and  natural  English,  though  of  an  older  generation.  Among 
contemporary  writers,  of  course,  there  are  many  disciples  (con- 
scious or  unconscious)  of  JVIr.  Howells  who  have  faithfully 
recorded  the  actual  conversation  of  middle  class  Americans, 
with  all  its  banality  and  benevolent  dullness,  or  its  cheap 
smartness  and  vulgarity.  But  one  does  not  need  to  be  a  dis- 
ciple of  Meredith  and  James  in  order  to  believe  that  some 
attention  to  conversation  in  novels  should  raise  rather  than 
lower  the  tone  of  conversation  in  real  life. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  37.     Study  sections  135-139. 
Assignnicjit  38.     Study  sections  140-148. 

Assignincnl  39.  Bring  to  class  a  written  memorandum  of  at  least  ten 
errors  recently  heard  in  conversation  among  educated  persons. 


CHAPTER  XI 
ARGUMENTATION 

149.  Argumentation  is  exposition  under  fire.  When  we 
argue,  we  are  explaining  something  about  which  people  disagree ; 
seeking  to  overcome  opposition  or  indifference  by  an  appeal  to 
reason.  Exposition  answers  the  questions,  What  do  you  know? 
What  do  you  think?  Argumentation  answers  the  questions, 
How  do  you  know  it?     Why  do  you  think  so? 

In  all  the  kinds  of  writing  and  speaking  so  far  considered  the 
explanation  of  a  subject  has  been  the  principal  aim.  The 
hearers  or  readers  for  whom  this  explanation  was  designed  were 
sometimes  thought  of  as  indifferent  and  hard  to  rouse,  but  never 
as  hostile.  When,  as  in  some  of  the  business  letters  and  some 
of  the  speeches  for  special  occasions,  disagreement  was  assumed, 
the  presumption  was  that  the  disagreement  rested  upon  a 
misapprehension  as  to  matters  of  fact.  It  could  be  removed, 
we  were  confident,  by  supplying  further  information. 

But  one  of  the  commonest  uses  of  English  is  to  meet  and 
overcome  definite  opposition.  Every  day  we  try  to  convince 
or  to  persuade  people:  to  convince  them  that  our  view  is  correct; 
to  persuade  them  to  do  that  which  they  are  disinclined  to  do. 
Argumentation  in  its  simplest  forms  is  practised  in  the  daily 
conversation  of  almost  everybody.  The  moment  our  assertions 
are  challenged  and  we  begin  to  support  them,  either  by  citing 
facts  or  by  reasoning  about  facts,  we  have  begun  to  argue. 
We  may  aim  simply  to  defend  ourselves  against  misrepre- 
sentation or  ridicule;  we  may  desire  to  bend  the  will  of  others 
to  serve  our  pleasure  or  convenience;  or  we  may  wish  to  main- 
tain the  superiority  of  one  opinion  over  another  for  the  mere 

205 


2o6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

pleasure  of  intellectual  contest.  When,  instead  of  arguing 
with  individuals  on  questions  of  individual  opinion  or  action, 
we  try  to  convince  a  group  of  persons,  such  as  a  society,  a  club, 
or  a  class,  we  are  more  likely  to  rely  upon  general  rather  than 
personal  considerations.  We  depend  less  on  mere  assertion, 
take  less  for  granted,  and  try,  as  the  phrase  goes,  to  make  out 
a  case.  Whatever  the  kind  of  argumentation,  the  incentive 
is  always  the  same  —  the  desire  to  win. 

150.  Questions  of  fact  and  questions  of  opinior.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  arguments  of  very  dilYerent  nature,  yet  often 
confused:  those  which  seek  to  prove  a  fact,  and  those  which 
seek  to  defend  an  opinion.  The  one  kind  of  question  asks, 
Is  this  statement  true?  The  other  kind  asks,  Is  this  opinion 
sound,  this  estimate  just,  this  decision  right,  this  poUcy  wise? 
The  one  is  the  question  of  truth,  the  other  of  opinion  or  ex- 
pediency. The  one  has  reference  always  to  the  past  or  the 
present,  the  other  frequently  to  the  future.  Examples  of  these 
two  sorts  of  questions  may  be  compared  to  show  the  difference. 

Is  the  average   rate   of  women's         Is  a  mimimum  wage  law  for  wo- 
wages  below  the  necessary  cost  of    men  desirable? 
living? 

Does    cigarette    smoking    among         Should  the  sale  of  cigarettes   to 
boys  tend  to  impair  health?  minors  be  prohibited? 

Does   deforestation   cause   floods?         Should  the  remaining  forests  be 

purchased  and  administered  by  the 
government? 

Do  any  Southern  states  deny  the         Was  the  adoption  of  the  fifteenth 
right  of  suffrage  to  negroes?  amendment  unwise? 

Did  a  college  team  during  the  sea-         Was  the  improvement  in  the  work 
son  win  a  larger  percentage  of  its     of  a  college  team  due  to  a  new  coach- 
games  than  any  of  its  predecessors    ing  system? 
during  the  past  five  years? 

Was  a  certain  criminal  guilty  of        Did    the    governor    do    right    in 
murder?  pardoning  him? 

Did   a   certain    student   cheat   in         Should  the  honor  committee  in- 
examination?  flict  the  extreme  penalty  for  a  first 

offense? 


ARGUMENTATION  ±o^ 

In  many  cases  the  two  kinds  of  questions  appear  together, 
questions  of  opinion  depending  in  part  on  questions  of  fact. 
There  is,  however,  a  tendency  to  confuse  the  two,  illustrated 
by  a  very  prevalent  misuse  of  the  word  fact  as  the  equivalent 
of  opinion  or  belief.  A  fact  is  something  done, —  an  event,  a 
truth,  something  which  can  be  tested,  proved,  demonstrated  to 
the  satisfaction  of  all  intelligent  and  impartial  persons.  It 
is  true  that  the  demonstration  of  a  fact  in  chemistry  may  not 
be  evident  to  persons  unfamiliar  with  chemistry;  but  if  it  be 
a  fact,  the  chemists  will  agree  about  it.  Evidence  in  regard 
to  a  historical  event  such  as  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania  may  be 
more  or  less  conflicting  on  minor  points,  but  the  fad  that  the 
ship  was  sunk  by  a  submarine  is  doubted  by  no  one.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  may  not  speak  of  the  alleged  fact  that  chemistry 
should  be  a  required  study  in  college,  or  that  the  officers  of  the 
Z,W5/7a«/a  weie  negligent.  Those  are  matters  of  opinion.  Facts 
are  proved  by  evidence;  opinions  are  supported  both  by  evi- 
dence and  by  reasoning. 

College  argumentation  tends  too  much  to  slight  questions  of 
fact.  Debaters  like  to  choose  questions  that  deal  with  the 
future,  for  it  is  easier  to  predict  than  to  prove.  When  reason- 
ing is  based  on  facts,  the  facts  are  commonly  taken  on  the  author- 
ity of  a  magazine  or  newspaper  writer  or  a  partisan  advocate. 
The  idea  of  tracing  statements  to  their  original  sources  and 
estimating  the  credibility  of  those  sources  is  not  popular.  It 
means  hard  work,  whereas  one  may  easily  build  an  apparently 
convincing  argument  out  of  assumptions  and  inferences  and 
bold  guesses.  The  difficulty  of  getting  adequate  proof  of  facts 
is  indeed  often  too  great  for  undergraduates  to  surmount. 
Even  when  it  involves  only  the  study  of  printed  evidence,  the 
practical  limitations  of  time  forbid  exhaustive  study  of  more 
than  a  small  part  of  the  material.  Usually  facts  concerning 
recent  or  present  affairs  cannot  be  established  without  producing 
the  personal  testimony  of  witnesses  —  a  means  of  proof  obvi- 


2o8  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

ously  beyond  the  powers  of  student  debaters.  College  men 
often  make  an  honest  effort  to  get  competent  evidence  to  support 
their  contentions,  fail  through  no  fault  of  their  own,  and  fall 
back  upon  confident  assertion. 

On  account  of  this  difficulty  in  really  proving  facts,  a  fresh- 
man class  cannot  do  thorough  work  in  argumentation  upon  such 
subjects  as  are  commonly  chosen,  dealing  with  unsolved  prob- 
lems in  such  sciences  as  economics  and  politics,  of  which  they 
do  not  know  even  the  elements.  There  are  three  branches  of 
argumentation,  however,  which  can  be  undertaken  at  this  time. 
The  first  is  the  method  of  analyzing  a  question  into  its  issues. 
The  second  is  the  structure  of  proof  as  shown  in  brief-drawing. 
The  third  is  the  detection  of  a  few  common  fallacies.  In  other 
words,  the  student  may  learn  by  practice  (i)  how  to  tell  what 
needs  to  be  proved  in  order  to  make  out  a  case;  (2)  how  to 
arrange  such  material  as  he  is  able  to  collect  in  orderly  and 
effective  form;  (3)  how  to  tell  when  he  is  being  deceived,  or  is 
deceiving  himself,  by  forms  of  words  which  sound  like  reasoning 
but  are  not  valid.  In  studying  these  three  branches  of  argu- 
mentation, the  immediate  object  in  view  will  be  not  debating, 
but  rather  the  cultivation  of  the  power  to  analyze  a  question 
and  to  write  a  brief.  No  treatment  of  debating  itself  is  here 
included,  though  some  of  the  illustrations  are  drawn  from 
situations  which  arise  in  debates. 

151.  Analyzing  a  question  to  find  the  issues.  When  it  is 
proposed,  in  a  college  community,  to  add  hockey  or  soccer  foot- 
ball to  the  list  of  intercollegiate  sports,  discussion  sooner  or 
later  settles  down  to  three  or  four  points  such  as  these:  (i) 
Have  we  room  for  another  intercollegiate  sport?  (2)  Could  we 
put  up  winning  teams?  (3)  Would  the  game  be  self-sup- 
porting? (4)  Is  it  worth  the  work,  either  as  a  form  of  exer- 
cise or  as  a  good  game  from  the  spectator's  point  of  view? 
Such  questions  as  these  are  called  the  issues,  the  main  issues. 
They  depend  on  other  subordinate  questions,  or  minor  issues. 


i 


ARGUMENTATION  209 

For  example,  the  question  whether  the  game  would  be  seK- 
supporting  depends  on  such  minor  issues  as  these:  (i)  Are  the 
expenses  heavy?  (2)  Are  the  gate  receipts  likely  to  be  large? 
(3)  Has  the  game  paid  its  way  elsewhere? 

Issues  are  not  always  so  easy  to  discover.  Ordinarily  at  the 
beginning  of  a  discussion  various  questions  are  raised  which 
actually  obscure  the  issues,  questions  which  really  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  case.  Some  of  them  are  due  to  the  lack  of  ade- 
quate definition  of  terms.  Others  are  points  on  which  the  op- 
ponents finally  discover  themselves  to  be  in  agreement.  Such 
irrelevant  matters  and  conceded  points  should  be  got  out  of  the 
way  before  the  argument  itself  begins.  Further,  many  ques- 
tions contain  a  factor,  such  as  the  constitutionality  of  a  pro- 
posed law,  which  is  pertinent,  but  too  large  or  too  technical  to 
be  included  in  the  argument.  Such  points  may  well  be  waived 
by  both  sides,  that  is,  excluded  by  agreement  without  admissions 
one  way  or  the  other.  Before  we  can  find  the  issues,  it  is  usu- 
ally necessary  to  take  the  following  preliminary  steps: 

1.  Stating  the  question. 

2.  Defining  the  terms. 

3.  Comparing  the  contentions  of  the  two  sides. 
4o  Excluding  irrelevant  points. 

5„     Enumerating  points  of  agreement. 

6.     Stating  points  waived  (on  which  there  is  to  be  no  discussion). 

152.  Stating  the  question.  Many  different  questions  can 
be  framed  with  reference  to  any  topic  of  the  day.  The  term 
"elective  system,"  for  example,  may  be  used  to  form  such  widely 
different  questions  as  these: 

Should  the  elective  system  be  extended  to  the  freshman  year? 

Does  the  elective  system  give  a  broader  education  than  a  prescribed 

curriculum? 
Is  the  elective  system  suitable  for  high  schools? 

It  is  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  argue  about  a  term.  The 
term  must  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence  with  a  definite 


2IO  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

predicate,  making  a  proposition,  or,  stated  interrogatively,  a 
question.  "High  school  fraternities"  is  a  term.  We  may 
attach  to  it  various  predicates,  such  as  the  following: 

Are  high  school  fraternities  detrimental  to  scholarship? 
Do  high  school  fraternities  tolerate  drinking  and  gambling? 
Should  high  school  fraternities  be  abolished? 

In  general,  questions  like  the  first  two  of  these  are  better  for 
elementary  practice  than  questions,  like  the  third,  containing  the 
word  should.  The  reason  they  are  better  is  that  they  empha- 
size matters  of  fact,  while  the  other  emphasizes  matters  of 
opinion.  If  it  can  be  established  that  high  school  fraternities 
are  detrimental  to  scholarship  or  to  good  morals,  there  is  noth- 
ing left  to  say  about  the  third  question;  of  course  they  should 
be  abolished.  While  arguments  on  questions  of  opinion  usually 
recognize  this  dependence  of  opinion  on  facts,  they  do  not  as  a 
rule  enter  so  thoroughly  into  a  study  of  the  facts  themselves  as 
if  the  main  question  were  solely  one  of  evidence. 

Choosing  a  term  based  upon  one  of  the  following  topics,  let 
each  student  prepare  several  cjuestions  bearing  upon  it,  and 
decide  which  would  be  the  most  profitable  for  discussion. 
The  questions  must  be  carefully  framed  in  written  form.  It  is 
desirable  to  state  questions  in  interrogative  sentences;  not 
in  declarative  sentences,  nor  in  the  form  beginning  "Resolved 
that."  The  purpose  in  using  the  interrogative  form  is  to  em- 
phasize the  fact  that  they  are  questions  to  be  investigated,  not 
as  yet  contentions  to  be  defended. 

1.  College  scholarships. 

2.  Saturday  classes. 

3.  Required  chapel  attendance. 

4.  Labora  tory  fees. 

5.  Athletic  coachmg  system. 

6.  Library  lules. 

7.  Spellinj;  reform. 

8.  Modern  language  teaching. 


ARGUMENTATION  211 

g.  Examination  system. 

10.  ColIe,<?e  news. 

1 1.  Local  street-car  service. 

12.  Local  political  situation. 

13.  Vocational  education. 

14.  Penmanship  in  the  schools. 

15.  Moving  picture  shows. 

16.  Sunday  baseball. 

17.  Sunday  studying. 

18.  Billboard  advertising. 

19.  Free  textbooks. 

20.  Self-support  in  college. 

21.  Automobile  laws. 

22.  Student  support  of  athletics. 

23.  Race  prejudice. 

24.  Protection  of  birds. 

25.  Lecture  system  in  college  courses. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  framing  a  question  for  practice  in  an 
elementary  course  to  make  it  neither  too  wide  nor  too  narrow. 
The  following  question  is  too  wide:  "Should  English  spelling  be 
reformed?"  A  suitable  substitute  would  be,  "Should  the  recom- 
mended spellings  of  the  Simplified  Spelling  Board  be  adopted  in 
schools  and  colleges?"  Too  narrow  for  practical  use  is  such  a 
question  as  this:  "Do  moving  pictures  injure  the  eyesight?"  It 
is  an  interesting  and  important  problem  for  oculists  to  decide,  on 
the  basis  of  wide  study  of  the  statistics  of  their  profession. 
Freshmen  could  do  nothing  with  it  except  to  recount  individual 
experience  and  quote  newspapers.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
discussion  of  the  more  suitable  question,  "Do  young  people 
spend  too  much  time  at  moving  picture  shows?"  the  matter  of 
eyestrain  might  properly  be  raised  and  argued  as  one  of  the 
several  issues.  It  could  not  be  adequately  argued,  but  it  would 
be  only  one  of  the  three  or  four  points,  of  which  others  could 
be  more  fully  investigated. 

Convenience  requires  that  questions  should  be  stated  without 
a  confusing  negative  such  as  appears  in  the  following:  "Labo- 


212  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

ratory  fees  are  not  unreasonably  high."  This  looks  like  a 
negative  statement,  but  it  is  really  the  affirmative  side  of  the 
question  "Are  the  laboratory  fees  reasonable?"  It  is  clearer 
to  have  no  negatives  in  the  question,  in  order  that  the  affirma- 
tive may  always  defend  the  answer  "Yes"  and  the  negative 
the  answer  "No."  Reasons  of  convenience  also  dictate  that  the 
question  should  be  as  brief  as  is  consistent  with  clearness.  It 
is  useless  to  specify  that  a  state  law  should  be  adopted  "by 
act  of  the  legislature";  or  that  a  new  road  should  be  built  at 
a  certain  place  "of  macadam,  concrete,  or  such  other  materials 
as  the  taxpayers  may  select."  The  verbose  phraseology  of 
statutes  and  legal  proceedings  has  no  place  in  the  classroom. 
153.  Defining  the  terms.  Frecjuently  no  terms  need 
definition.  But  in  an  argument  dealing  with  free  textbooks 
we  are  mistaken  if  we  think  that  because  the  words  free  and 
textbooks  are  familiar,  no  definition  is  called  for.  Free  text- 
books are  lent,  not  given,  to  the  pupils;  and  they  are  lent 
to  all,  not  merely  to  those  who  are  unable  to  provide  their  own 
books.  These  points  must  be  specified  at  the  outset  of  the 
analysis,  before  we  can  begin  to  look  for  the  issues;  otherwise 
we  shall  have  to  examine  contentions  for  the  negative  which 
have  no  real  basis,  "Sunday  baseball"  needs  definition, 
though  both  words  of  the  phrase  are  in  themselves  perfectly 
definite.  The  definition  should  specify  whether  the  term  means 
professional  as  well  as  amateur  baseball,  and  whether  Sunday 
means  the  whole  day  or  only  Sunday  afternoon.  These  points 
might  of  course  be  covered  in  the  statement  of  the  question; 
but  frequently  the  attemi)t  to  avoid  definitions  by  an  elaborate 
statement  of  the  cjuestion  makes  the  question  so  long  that  it  is 
not  easily  recalled  or  correctly  quoted.  "Self-support  in  college" 
is  a  convenient  term  to  cover  any  kind  of  gainful  work  by  college 
students,  whether  it  extends  to  complete  self-support  or  noto 
If  the  argument  is  to  turn  on  interference  with  study,  the 
definition  should  exclude  merely  incidental  and  rare  money- 


ARGUMENTATION  213 

earning  by  students.  "Race  prejudice"  is  an  example  of  a 
sort  of  terms  which  need  very  careful  definition.  If  it  is  to  be 
understood  merely  as  a  feeling  without  serious  consequences  in 
conduct,  a  suppressed  dislike  which  leads  to  no  injustice,  there 
will  be  no  serviceable  clash  of  opinion.  Concerning  that  kind 
of  prejudice  there  can  be  no  profitable  argument.  But  the  term 
really  means  more  than  the  word  prejudice  strictly  denotes. 
All  such  matters  of  definition  should  be  thought  out  in  advance 
of  discussion  so  far  as  possible. 

Little  help  in  defining  terms  will  be  got  from  the  dictionary. 
The  actual  meaning  that  attaches  to  a  term  like  "Sunday 
baseball"  or  "simplified  spelling"  is  to  be  ascertained  from 
reading  discussions  of  the  questions,  or  talking  with  those  who 
are  familiar  with  them.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  read  or 
recall  the  history  of  a  question  before  we  begin  to  collect  ma- 
terial for  use  in  the  proof.  Until  we  know  how  the  controversy 
arose,  or  at  least  how  the  most  recent  stage  of  it  has  developed, 
we  can  neither  define  the  terms,  nor  exclude  irrelevant  points, 
nor  enumerate  points  of  agreement.  Reading  is  not  necessary 
to  define  by  this  method  the  term  "race  prejudice" —  not 
necessary,  at  least,  for  those  who  know  anything  of  current 
events.  All  that  is  required  is  to  recall  recent  outbreaks  of 
hostility  against  the  negroes,  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  the 
Italians,  the  Jews;  the  definition  then  emerges  in  definite 
form,  dealing  with  such  matters  as  the  right  to  work,  to  vote, 
to  own  property,  to  send  one's  children  to  school,  and  to  asso- 
ciate with  the  dominant  race  on  terms  of  civic  (not  social) 
equality. 

If  it  appears  likely  after  examining  the  history  of  a  question 
that  no  specific  definition  can  be  framed  which  will  be  accepted 
by  both  sides,  the  term  must  be  changed;  for  we  must  not 
conceal  an  argument  in  a  pretended  definition.  Thus  in  the 
question  "Are  laboratory  fees  reasonable?"  the  term  "reason- 
able" might  be  defined  by  the  affirmative  as  "covering  the 


214  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

cost  of  operation,  plus  interest  on  the  original  cost  of  equip- 
ment." The  negative  would  probably  decline  to  admit  the 
justice  of  the  second  half  of  the  definition.  The  affirmative 
would  have  a  right  to  defend  this  basis  of  estimating  laboratory 
charges  when  the  argument  proper  begins;  but  what  we  are 
now  seeking  is  a  definition  of  "reasonable"  on  which  both  sides 
can  agree,  on  which  both  will  rest  their  opposing  arguments. 
Evidently  the  student  must  look  into  college  finance  a  little 
before  he  can  frame  such  a  definition.  He  will  discover  that 
no  college  student  pays  by  his  tuition  fees  anything  like  the 
actual  cost  of  the  instruction  which  he  receives,  the  remainder 
being  met  by  income  from  endowment.  It  may  occur  to  him 
to  inquire  whether  the  laboratory  fees  are  intended  to  equalize 
the  student's  share  of  the  cost  of  his  education,  in  view  of  the 
heavier  expense  to  the  college  of  the  scientific  courses,  A 
definition  of  "reasonable"  on  this  basis  could  hardly  be  ob- 
jected to  by  the  negative.  The  argument  would  then  turn,  as 
it  should,  on  figures.  But  the  negative,  on  the  other  hand, 
might  try  to  make  "reasonable"  mean  "commensurate  with  the 
value  of  the  instruction  given,"  intending  to  turn  his  argument 
into  an  attack  on  unpopular  scientific  courses.  This  the  affirm- 
ative would  resist.  The  matter,  again,  is  one  for  the  proof, 
not  for  the  preliminary  analysis. 

Remembering  these  cautions,  let  the  student,  who  has 
already  stated  a  question,  proceed  to  write  a  definition  of  terms 
based  on  the  history  of  the  question.  This  should  be  carefully 
considered  to  ascertain  (i)  whether  it  is  entirely  specific; 
(2)  whether  both  sides  would  accept  it.  These  definitions  will 
be  brought  up  in  class  and  freely  criticised  from  the  point  of 
view  of  precision  and  impartiality.  A  rigid  and  searching  dis- 
cipline in  definition  as  a  preliminary  to  argument  is  perhaps 
the  most  valual)le  part  of  the  whole  subject. 

154.  Comparing  the  contentions  of  the  two  sides.  After 
stating  the  question  and  defining  the  terms  in  a  manner  that  is 


ARGUMENTATION  215 

likely  to  be  acceptable  to  both  sides,  the  third  step  is  to  com- 
pare the  points  pro  and  con.  This  of  course  is  done  on  the 
basis  of  a  preliminary  examination  of  the  question,  whether  by 
reading,  by  reflection,  or  by  informal  discussion.  The  results 
are  first  noted  down  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  to  the 
mind,  without  regard  to  logical  arrangement  or  relative  im- 
portance. We  apply  to  the  matter  of  argumentative  analysis 
the  same  method  of  mental  inventory  developed  in  Chapters  II 
and  IV  in  connection  with  exposition.  Points  in  favor  of  the 
afi&rmative  should  be  kept  separate  from  those  urged  for  the 
negative,  by  using  either  parallel  columns  or  separate  sheets.  It 
is  necessary  for  minds  untrained  in  analysis  to  see  all  these  points 
actually  in  writing  in  order  to  compare  them  and  to  discover 
the  issues.  Thus  in  preparing  for  an  argument  on  the  question 
"Should  the  direct  method  of  teaching  modern  languages  be 
adopted  in  this  college?"  the  contentions  of  the  two  sides, 
written  down  without  much  regard  to  order  or  relative  impor- 
tance, might  appear  somewhat  as  follows : 

Affirmative 

1.  Modern  languages,  as  now  taught  by  the  grammar  and  translation 
method,  have  little  value,  for 

a.  After  two  or  three  years  of  study  pupils  can  neither  speak  the 
language  nor  understand  it  when  spoken. 

b.  They  cannot  read  easily  at  sight. 

c.  They  have  no  real  appreciation  of  the  literature. 

2.  Students  trained  under  present  methods  are  at  a  disadvantage  when 
they  go  to  Europe. 

3.  They  cannot  even  answer  the  simple  questions  of  foreigners  in  this 
countr}', 

4.  Living  languages  should  be  learned  as  a  child  learns  to  speak,  by 
hearing  and  by  imitation. 

5.  We  Americans  pronounce  foreign  languages  even  worse  than  foreigners 
pronounce  English,  because  of  lack  of  practice. 

6.  The  direct  method  has  been  adopted  in  many  European  countries 
for  the  teaching  of  modern  languages. 


2i6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

7.  The  direct  method  trains  students  to  speak  and  understand  a  lan- 
guage with  ease. 

8.  When  one  can  speak  and  understand  a  language,  reading  will  take 
care  of  itself. 

9.  The  supposed  value  of  grammatical  discipline  in  training  the  mind, 
apart  from  practical  knowledge  of  the  language  itself,  is  largely  imaginary. 

10.  College  graduates  are  at  a  constant  disadvantage  in  business 
because  of  their  ignorance  of  foreign  languages,  especially  of  Spanish. 

11.  Students  who  have  had  three  years  of  French  or  German  cannot 
understand  a  foreign  business  letter,  follow  a  lecture  or  play,  or  translate  a 
quotation  they  meet  with  in  English  books. 

12.  The  present  expenditure  of  time  and  money  on  foreign  language 
study,  especially  in  required  courses,  is  a  great  educational  waste. 

13.  Ignorance  of  spoken  French  on  the  part  of  men  who  were  supposed 
to  know  the  language  was  especially  conspicuous  during  the  World  War. 

Observe  that  these  points  are  set  down  just  as  they  might 
come  up  in  reading  or  reflection  or  class  discussion.  That  there 
is  repetition  is  evident  at  a  glance.  But  before  criticising  the 
affirmative  contentions  let  us  note  those  offered  by  the  negative: 

Negative 

1.  It  is  not  the  aim  of  college  instruction  in  foreign  languages  to  enable 
a  few  students  during  vacation  to  converse  with  foreign  waiters  and  railway 
guards. 

2.  The  appreciation  of  a  foreign  literature  is  not  to  be  acquired  by  pass- 
ing the  valuable  time  of  college  classes  in  kindergarten  conversations  about 
the  number  of  windows  in  the  room  and  the  color  of  the  books  on  the  shelf. 

3.  Languages  cannot  be  taught  to  college  students  in  the  way  in  which 
children  learn  to  speak,  for  the  students  are  too  old  to  catch  the  sounds  and 
reproduce  them  as  a  child  does. 

4.  There  is  not  time  in  college  courses  to  give  the  individual  instruction 
and  practice  imjjlied  in  the  direct  method. 

5.  Though  students  may  not  learn  to  speak  fluently  or  to  understand 
the  spoken  language,  they  do  acquire  facility  in  reading. 

6.  Comparatively  few  Americans  travel  in  EurojK*;  fewer  now  than 
before  the  war. 

7.  When  they  do,  they  find  English  spoken  almost  everywhere. 

8.  It  is  not  important  that  students  should  be  able  to  conver,se  with 
iforeigners  in  this  country,  for  the  foreigners  should  learn  English 


/ 


ARGUMENTATION  217 

9.     English  is  the  coming  world-language. 

10.  The  percentage  of  efficiency  in  college  modern  language  teaching  is 
as  high  as  in  the  teaching  of  English  or  mathematics. 

11.  Spanish  is  the  only  modern  language  which  should  perhaps  be  taught 
by  a  conversational  method,  on  account  of  the  growing  importance  of  our 
relations  with  Spanish-speaking  countries. 

12.  The  direct  method  does  not  accomplish  what  is  claimed  for  it. 

13.  Its  use  in  Europe  arises  from  the  greater  need  there  for  practical 
mastery  of  foreign  languages  for  travel  and  commerce. 

14.  A  speaking  knowledge  of  French  would  have  been  useful  in  the  army 
during  the  war,  but  no  similar  situation  is  likely  to  occur  again. 

These  are  not  all  the  points  that  may  be  mentioned,  but  they 
are  sufficiently  numerous  to  be  confusing  in  their  lack  of  logical 
order  and  discrimination.  Yet  it  is  in  such  unclassified  lists  of 
material,  whether  in  library  notes  or  in  the  memoranda  of  one's 
own  mental  inventory,  that  the  search  for  the  main  issues  must 
be  undertaken.  Of  course  if  we  are  merely  pretending  to  ana- 
lyze a  question  that  has  been  already  formulated  by  careful 
writers,  we  have  no  such  confusion  to  clear  away;  in  that  case, 
our  work  has  been  done  for  us.  But  here  it  is  our  task  to 
discover  in  this  mass  of  conflicting  claims  the  issues  on  which 
the  question  really  turns.  This  cannot  be  done  by  guess-work 
or  by  inspiration.  The  process,  like  that  applied  to  the  mental 
inventory  for  exposition,  is  one  of  elimination  and  arrangement : 
cutting  out  points  that  should  not,  or  need  not,  be  argued,  and 
putting  the  rest  where  they  belong.  There  are,  as  has  been 
pointed  out,  three  kinds  of  points  which  we  are  to  eliminate  in 
order  to  find  the  issues:  (i)  those  which  are  clearly  irrelevant; 
(2)  those  on  which  the  two  sides  agree;  (3)  those  on  which  both 
sides  agree  to  waive  discussion,  though  they  may  not  think 
alike. 

155.  Excluding  irrelevant  points.  In  some  discussions  no 
irrelevant  points  are  raised.  The  contentions  should  always 
be  scanned,  however,  to  see  if  any  are  included.  By  irrelevant 
points  we  mean  points  which  even  the  side  that  raises  them  will, 


2i8  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

on  second  thought,  admit  to  be  immaterial;  or  which  the  audi- 
ence would  surely  regard  as  immaterial  if  the  speaker  were  too 
blind  or  too  obstinate  to  yield.  In  the  contentions  of  the 
negative  on  the  modern  language  question,  points  9  and  10 
appear  to  be  of  that  sort.  Whether  or  not  English  is  to  be 
the  world-language  in  some  future  generation,  it  is  not  now; 
and  the  question  deals  with  the  present.  As  to  the  relative 
eflSciency  of  modern  language  instruction  and  other  kinds  of 
teaching,  that  too  is  irrelevant.  We  are  not  demanding  per- 
fection in  language  teaching,  but  improvement.  That  there  are 
defects  in  English  and  mathematical  teaching,  as  tested  by 
results,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  case.  Those  defects  too 
should  be  corrected,  but  we  are  not  discussing  them.  Points  9 
and  ID  are  accordingly  canceled,  or  marked  irrelevant. 

156.  Enumerating  points  of  agreement.  There  are  always 
points  of  agreement  in  arguments  among  fair-minded  persons. 
These  are  to  be  looked  for  not  merely  in  the  explicit  contentions 
of  the  two  sides,  but  in  the  implied  admissions.  They  are 
more  often  matters  of  fact  than  matters  of  opinion.  Thus  it 
is  evident  from  the  contentions  above  stated  that  the  following 
facts  will  be  admitted  by  both  sides  when  stated  in  impartial 
form : 

1.  Under  prevailing  methods  students  do  not  learn  to  speak  fluently, 
to  pronounce  accurately,  or  to  understand  readily  the  spoken  language. 
(Compare  affirmative  la,  2, 3, 5,  with  negative  5,  and  the  implied  admissions 
in  negative  1,6,  7,  8.) 

2.  A  speaking  knowledge  of  Spanish  is  desirable  for  Americans  doing 
business  with  Spanish-speaking  countries,  for  many  government  employees, 
and  for  residents  in  the  Southwestern  states.  (Compaie  affirmative  10 
with  negative  11.) 

3.  A  speaking  knowledge  of  French,  German,  and  Italian  is  convenient, 
though  not  indispensable,  for  Euro])ean  travel.  (Compare  affirmative  2 
with  negative  6,  7.) 

4.  The  ability  to  read  a  foreign  language  is  more  useful  for  most  Amer- 
icans than  the  ability  to  speak  it.  (Comj>are  the  implications  of  affirmative 
8,  II,  with  those  of  negative  i,  5,  6,  7.) 


ARGUMENTATION  219 

5.  Among  thousands  of  American  officers  and  soldiers  who  had  studied 
French,  few  were  able  to  speak  the  language,  or  to  understand  it  readily 
when  spoken,  during  their  service  in  France.  (Compare  affirmative  13 
with  negative  14.) 

Such  points  may  be  marked  on  the  list  of  contentions 
"Admitted.  See  ..."  They  are  not  to  be  canceled  or  ex- 
cluded, for  they  may  be  used  in  the  course  of  differing  arguments 
on  the  two  sides.  We  merely  mark  them  as  not  contributing 
to  the  issues. 

157.  Stating  points  waived.  In  many  arguments  there  are 
points  which  are  neither  irrelevant  nor  admitted,  but  which 
nevertheless  are  omitted  from  the  discussion  by  mutual  agree- 
ment. As  above  mentioned,  the  constitutionality  of  a  proposed 
law  is  a  good  example  of  such  points.  The  affirmative  would 
be  of  opinion  that  the  law  would  be  constitutional,  the  negative 
inclined  to  doubt  it,  but  neither  side  competent  to  argue  the 
matter.  Under  such  circumstances  the  point  is  said  to  be 
waived,  and  may  not  be  brought  up  by  either  side.  In  the 
modern  language  question  there  is  no  such  point  on  the  list  of 
contentions;  but  a  fundamental  doubt  may  be  raised  by  the 
affirmative  whether  modern  language  study  should  be  required 
at  all  unless  it  can  be  made  to  yield  greater  practical  results. 
This  question,  as  to  the  general  propriety  of  a  modern  language 
requirement  in  college,  if  raised,  can  hardly  be  pronounced 
irrelevant;  but  it  will  probably  be  waived,  or  "granted  for  the 
sake  of  the  argument,"  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing  in  the 
end. 

We  have  now  reduced  the  twenty-seven  points  noted  down  at 
the  outset  by  excluding  two  as  irrelevant,  and  enumerating  five 
points  of  agreement  which  cover  more  or  less  completely 
about  half  of  the  remaining  number.  The  hardest  part  of  the 
analysis  is  still  to  come  —  the  hardest,  because  it  cannot  be 
performed  by  mechanical  notations  with  a  pencil,  but  only  by  a 
distinct  mental  effort.     We  need  now  to  compare  the  remaining 


220  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

contentions  of  the  two  sides  and  sort  them  into  groups.  For 
example,  affirmative  ib,  ii,  come  directly  into  conflict  with 
negative  5  on  this  issue:  "Does  the  present  method  succeed 
in  training  students  to  read  at  sight?"  Af&rmative  ic  com- 
pared with  negative  i,  2,  touches  briefly  on  what  is  evidently 
another  issue  of  fact:  "Does  the  present  method  succeed  in 
giving  a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  foreign  literatures?" 
Affirmative  4  and  negative  3  take  issue  on  the  question:  ''Can 
college  students  be  taught  a  language  in  the  same  way  that 
children  learn  to  speak?"  Affirmative  6,  7,  8,  compared  with 
negative  4,  12,  13,  yield  various  specific  points  deahng  with 
the  direct  method,  its  principle,  and  its  appUcation  to  college 
teaching.  Affirmative  i,  9,  compared  with  negative  i,  2,  show 
us  that  the  two  sides  difl[er  radically  as  to  the  aims  of  college 
instruction  in  modern  languages  and  the  relative  importance 
of  those  aims.  Various  other  points  on  both  sides  (which  the 
student  may  note  for  himself)  raise  the  question,  "Is  a  speaking 
knowledge  of  a  foreign  language  of  enough  value  to  American 
students  to  be  worth  the  time  it  takes  to  acquire?"  Both  sides 
admit  that  speaking  is  less  important  than  reading,  but  do  not 
agree  as  to  how  important  the  speaking  is.  In  this  way  we  go 
on  comparing  points  that  contradict  each  other  directly  or 
indirectly,  until  we  have  a  series  of  questions  such  as  the 
following : 

1.  Is  the  ability  to  speak  and  understand  a  foreign  language  (except 
Spanish)  sufficiently  important  to  be  made  the  principal  aim  of  college 
language  teaching?  ' 

2.  Do  American  college  graduates  have  much  use  for  such  knowledge? 

3.  Docs  the  present  method  give  a  reasonable  reading  knowledge? 

4.  Does  it  give  a  reasonable  knowledge  of  the  literature? 

5.  Is  the  direct  method  correct  in  principle? 

6.  Does  it  yield  satisfactory  results  where  it  is  used? 

7.  Does  its  use  in  Europe  justify  its  adoption  here? 

8.  Is  it  practicable  in  college  teaching? 


ARGUMENTATION  221 

158.  Stating  the  issues.  Other  questions  of  detail  (minor 
issues)  may  be  added;  but  it  begins  to  be  evident  that  the 
real  niunber  of  main  issues  is  small  —  three  or  four.  The 
second  question  above  evidently  depends  on  the  lirst;  the  third 
and  fourth  are  plainly  parts  of  a  larger  question;  and  the 
other  four  likewise  belong  in  a  single  group.  Our  main  issues 
emerge  in  some  such  form  as  this: 

1.  Is  the  present  college  method  of  teaching  modern  languages  satis- 
factory in  (a)  aims;  (b)  results? 

2.  Is  the  direct  method  superior  in  (a)  aims;  (b)  methods;  (c)  results? 

3.  Is  the  direct  method  practicable  under  present  conditions  of  college 
teaching? 

Each  of  these  three  main  issues  depends  on  subordinate  or 
minor  issues,  some  of  which  are  indicated  in  the  list  of  conten- 
tions. To  all  such  questions  the  affirmative  will  give  one 
answer,  the  negative  an  opposite  answer.  The  issues  are  the 
points  on  which  the  whole  argument  turns;  the  points  which 
each  side  must  meet  with  some  reasonable  proof,  or  fail.  That 
they  are  sometimes  self-evident  does  not  excuse  the  student 
from  a  formal  statement  of  them  before  the  beginning  of  the 
proof.  It  is  always  a  defect  in  a  formal  argument  to  begin 
proof  without  outlining  the  things  that  must  be  proved:  a  de- 
fect, because  clearness  and  force  require  that  the  entire  case  be 
outlined  in  this  way  before  any  part  of  it  is  taken  up  in  detail. 

For  a  question  of  policy  proposing  a  change  in  existing  usage 
(containing  the  word  should  or  its  equivalent)  there  are  nearly 
always  three  such  issues  as  those  above  stated: 

1.  Is  the  existing  state  of  affairs  so  unsatisfactory  as  to  demand  a  change? 

2.  Is  the  proposed  substitute  or  remedy  adequate  to  improve  present 
conditions? 

3.  Can  it  be  practically  applied? 

■  Any  argument  about  a  proposed  law  or  other  political  or 
economic  reform  may  be  reduced  to  this  form.     A  fourth  issue 


222  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

arises  when  the  negative  proposes  another  remedy  instead  of 
that  offered  by  the  affirmative: 

4.  Is  the  remedy  named  in  the  question  the  best  way  of  meeting  the 
situation? 

The  form  of  the  issues  varies  according  to  the  subject,  but 
in  general  such  questions  as  these  three  or  four  must  always  be 
met  in  arguments  of  poUcy.  On  the  other  hand,  arguments 
about  questions  of  fact,  or  opinions  about  facts,  can  be  analyzed 
by  no  such  formula;  each  question  must  be  taken  up  as  an  in- 
dividual problem.  If  it  is  desired  to  analyze  the  question  of 
fact,  "Has  woman  suffrage  improved  political  conditions  in  our 
state?"  the  only  way  to  proceed  is  to  investigate  by  read- 
ing the  claims  for  and  against  the  suffrage  law  in  the  state; 
to  learn  whether  legislation  has  improved,  whether  the  character 
of  candidates  elected  to  executive  office  is  higher  than  it  was, 
whether  there  is  less  corruption,  whether  the  better  class  of 
women  leave  the  voting  to  the  ignorant  and  vicious  classes,  and 
so  on.  Such  an  analysis  arises  out  of  a  careful  preliminary 
definition  of  the  term  "improvement  of  pohtical  conditions." 

Notice  that  the  issues  are  always  to  be  stated  in  the  form'of 
questions,  either  interrogative  sentences  or  indirect  questions 
beginning  with  "whether."  To  confuse  them  with  the  divisions 
of  the  proof  by  affirming  or  denying  the  debatable  points  in 
declarative  sentences  is  to  miss  the  whole  aim  of  the  analysis. 
That  aim  is  to  clear  the  ground  for  proof  by  showing  what  needs 
to  be  proved.' 

159.  Steps  in  analysis  recapitulated.  This  method  of 
analysis  is  one  first  appUed  (somewhat  more  elaborately)  by 
Professor  George  P.  Baker,  to  whose  Principles  of  Argumen- 

»Avoid  the  prevalent  word  proven.  It  is  not  in  Rood  present  usaRC,  though  found 
in  good  authors  here  and  there.  The  objection  to  it  is  that  tlie  endinc;  en  for  the  per- 
fect participle  normally  belongs  only  to  strong  verlis,  derived  from  Old  English  (gj't/e, 
given;  drive,  driven).  Prove  is  from  the  French,  —  the  only  non-Teutonic  verb  to 
which  any  attempt  is  ever  ma<le  to  add  -en. 


ARGUMENTATION  223 

tation  all  teachers  must  acknowledge  their  indebtedness.     The 
seven  steps  are  as  follows: 

lo     Stating  the  question. 

2.  Defining  the  terms. 

3.  Writing  out  all  the  possible  contentions  held,  or  likely  to  be  held,  by 
the  two  sides. 

4.  Excluding  irrelevant  points. 

5.  Enumerating  points  of  agreement. 

6.  Stating  points  waived. 

7.  Reducing  the  remaining  contentions  to  a  small  number  of  main  issues, 
logically  arranged. 

Of  these  steps  the  second,  fourth,  and  sixth  may  sometimes 
be  unnecessary;  the  other  four  are  indispensable.  The  analysis 
rests  not  upon  guess-work  but  upon  careful  examination  of  the 
printed  material,  in  the  case  of  library  subjects,  or  upon  a  con- 
sideration of  current  discussions,  in  the  case  of  subjects  chosen 
from  experience.  This  process  should  be  applied  by  the  class 
to  a  second  question,  framed  on  the  basis  of  one  of  the  following 
topics : 

1.  The  relation  of  college  debating  to  intellectual  honesty. 

2.  The  expediency  of  applying  the  "freshman  rule"  to  all  intercollegiate 
sports  in  this  college. 

3o  The  desirabihty  of  deferring  fraternity  "rushing"  until  after  the 
Christmas  recess. 

4.  Rights  of  non-fraternity  men  in  college  politics. 

5.  Ethics  of  indirect  inducements  to  athletes. 

6.  Summer  baseball  and  perjury. 

7.  Municipal  dance  halls. 

8.  Playing  cards  for  small  stakes. 

9.  Use  of  translations  in  language  courses. 

10.  College  credit  for  members  of  musical  clubs. 

11.  Union  churches  in  small  villages. 

12.  Equal  pay  for  equal  work  in  public  school  teaching. 

13.  Requirement  of  physical  exercise  throughout  college  course. 

14.  Co-education. 

15.  Evangehcal  test  for  active  membership  in  Yo  M.  C.  A. 

16.  Three-year  course  for  pre-medical  students. 


224  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

17.  Best  methods  of  street  lighting. 

18.  Mail-order  houses  and  the  country  storekeeper. 

19.  A  five-year  college  course  for  women. 

20.  The  medical  profession  as  a  career  for  women. 

21.  Municipal  control  of  milk  supply. 

22.  Licensing  of  cats  for  protection  of  birds. 

23.  Bible  reading  in  public  schools. 

24.  School  credit  for  week-day  religious  education  controlled  by  churches. 

25.  Hospital  charges  for  patients  above  the  pauper  and  below  the  well- 
to-do  class. 

A  complete  analysis,  with  an  elaborate  list  of  contentions,  on 
any  one  of  these  questions  should  cost  the  student  several  hours 
of  hard  thinking,  with  pencil  in  hand.  Superficiality  and  haste 
defeat  the  whole  purpose  of  the  assignment,  which  is  to  pro- 
mote clear,  consecutive,  independent  thinking.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  there  should  be  no  collusion  or  cooperation  among 
students  in  this  kind  of  work,  so  far  as  the  formulation  of  the 
results  is  concerned.  Informal  discussion  before  beginning  to 
write  may  be  helpful,  if  the  student  has  enough  independence 
to  go  off  by  himself  and  work  out  the  thing  in  his  own  way  and 
his  own  words  afterwards.  The  safer  plan  is  to  do  the  whole 
work  alone  from  beginning  to  end;  and  in  any  case  the  stating 
of  the  question,  definition  of  terms,  selection  of  points  to  be 
eliminated,  and  statement  of  the  issues  must  be  independent. 
Only  in  collecting  a  comprehensive  list  of  contentions  can  use 
of  borrowed  material  be  legitimate,  and  not  then  unless  each 
contributes  as  much  as  he  receives.  Nowhere  is  one  more  likely 
to  lean  on  the  suggestions  of  a  quicker  mind  than  in  analyzing 
a  cjuestion;  and  nowhere  is  the  intellectual  vice  so  acquired 
more  apparently  trifling  and  more  permanently  disastrous. 
College  men  who  cannot  tliink  for  themselves  will  never  be 
leaders. 

160.  Proof.  The  word  proof  as  used  in  argumentation  does 
not  mean  demonstration;  it  does  not  mean  establishing  a  point 
beyond  a  reasonable  doubt.     If  it  did,  there  would  be  an  evi- 


ARGUMENTATION 


225 


dent  absurdity  in  any  debate,  the  affirmative  and  the  negative 
undertaking  to  "prove"  opposite  conclusions.  Proof  in  this 
connection  is  a  name  for  facts  or  reasoning  offered  in  support 
of  the  side  which  the  speaker  defends;  material  which  tends  to 
produce  conviction.  Inasmuch  as  sensible  people  never  argue 
absolutely  one-sided  questions,  there  is  always  some  proof,  in 
this  sense,  to  be  offered  on  both  sides.  Thus  a  lawyer  who  un- 
dertakes to  defend  a  man  accused  of  murder  or  burglary  must, 
if  he  be  an  honest  lawyer,  have  some  evidence  tending  to  prove 
an  alibi,  or  a  want  of  motive,  or  a  case  of  mistaken  identity; 
or  he  may  be  obliged  to  admit  the  act  charged  and  still  offer 
proof  of  possible  insanity;  or  he  may  rely  on  some  technical 
flaw  in  the  indictment. 

A  careful  writer  or  speaker,  however,  though  he  uses  the 
noun  proof  in  this  meaning  of  material  offered  in  support  of 
one  side,  does  not  lightly  claim  to  have  proved  things  which  he 
has  merely  asserted.  He  prefers  to  avoid  that  audacious  verb; 
to  say  that  he  has  offered  evidence  or  given  reasons  which' tend 
to  prove,  or  go  to  show,  that  his  side  is  right.  Really  to  prove 
anything,  in  the  sense  of  legal  or  scientific  demonstration,  is 
almost  impossible  for  young  writers  and  speakers.  They'have 
neither  the  learning  nor  the  resources  in  the  way  of  getting 
testimony  which  lawyers  and  scientists  can  command.  There  is 
something  absurd  in  the  flippant  way  in  which  young  men  un- 
dertake to  "prove,"  in  ten  minutes  between  two  bells,  proposi- 
tions over  which  experts  have  labored  for  years.  In  fact,  the 
very  notion  of  students  settling  questions  about  which  their 
teachers  are  in  doubt  has  an  element  of  farce.  All  this  absurdity 
disappears  if  we  regard  the  student's  task  as  merely  saying  what 
he  can  in  support  of  the  side  to  which  he  inclines  after  an 
honest  though  superficial  inquiry. 

161.  The  burden  of  proof .  In  most  arguments  one  side  has  at 
the  outset  a  heavier  responsibility  than  the  other;  more  to 
prove,  because  there  is  a  certain  presumption  in  favor  of  the 


226  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

other  side.  This  excess  of  responsibiUty  is  called  the  burden 
of  proof.  It  rests  more  often  on  the  affirmative  than  on  the 
negative;  always  when  the  question  is  so  stated  that  the  affirm- 
ative must  maintain  a  view  different  from  general  opinion  or 
prevailing  usage.  For  example,  any  one  who  attempts  to  ad- 
vocate a  new  law  must  carry  the  burden  of  proof;  for  the  pre- 
sumption is  that  we  have  laws  enough  already.  The  majority 
of  the  American  people  have  held  that  the  declaration  of  war 
against  Germany  was  justified;  the  burden  of  proof  rests  upon 
him  who  denies  it.  There  is  a'strong  popular  opposition  to  high 
school  fraternities,  which  puts  the  burden  of  proof  on  a  defender 
of  them;  but  no  such  feeling  exists  against  college  fraternities, 
and  one  who  attacks  them  must  assume  a  burden  of  proof.  Law 
and  justice  presume  that  a  man  is  innocent  until  he  is  proved 
guilty ;  and  any  attack  upon  the  honesty  or  sincerity  of  individ- 
uals of  good  reputation  carries  with  it  a  burden  of  proof. 

The  practical  importance  of  the  burden  of  proof  in  ordinary 
argumentative  writing  and  speaking  is  not  so  great  as  debaters 
sometimes  suppose.  The  main  thing  to  remember  is  that  neither 
side  has  a  right  to  take  matters  for  granted  except  the  points 
specifically  admitted  at  the  outset;  that  every  matter  in  con- 
troversy must  be  supported,  not  merely  asserted.  The  negative 
side  in  a  debate  has  the  privilege  of  confining  its  proof  to  meet- 
ing the  case  presented  by  the  afiirmative;  but  it  is  unsafe  to 
rely  upon  this  privilege  to  the  extent  of  being  unprovided  with 
material  to  meet  a  sudden  change  of  front.  Unexpected  devel- 
opments may  shift  the  burden  of  proof  from  one  side  to  the 
other  during  the  argument.  This  occurs  whenever,  by  reason 
of  new  evidence,  an  impartial  listener  would  transfer  his  sym- 
pathy from  one  side  to  the  other.  When  a  man  is  on  trial  for 
a  crime,  the  burden  of  proof  rests  on  the  state,  until  it  is  estab- 
Hshed  that  the  man  has  assumed  a  disguise,  or  changed  his 
name,  or  destroyed  clothing  or  papers,  immediately  after  the 
time  of  the  act  with  which  he  is  charged.     It  then  rests  on  him 


ARGUMENTATION  227 

to  remove,  if  he  can,  the  bad  effect  caused  by  these  suspicious 
circumstances.  Inan  argument  about  speUing  reform  there  is  at 
the  start,  as  usual,  a  burden  of  proof  on  the  afifirmative;  but  it 
may  soon  be  lightened  by  showing  that  English  spelling  has  never 
been  regarded  as  permanent,  and  that  innumerable  changes  have 
been  made  in  every  generation.  The  student  is  always  to  re- 
member that  he  cannot  long  rely  on  any  presumption  in  his 
favor;  that  every  step  must  be  prepared,  and  every  position 
defended. 

1 62.  Evidence  and  reasoning.  In  order  to  establish  a  fact  we 
use  evidence;  in  order  to  interpret  a  fact  in  support  of  an 
opinion  we  use  reasoning.  Thus  in  arguing  for  the  adoption 
of  a  certain  policy  in  our  college  or  city  or  state,  we  may  use 
evidence  to  show  that  the  policy  has  worked  well  in  other 
places.  When  we  assume  that  therefore  it  would  work  well 
here,  we  are  reasoning;  perhaps  reasoning  unsoundly,  for  the 
conditions  may  be  altogether  different.  In  a  great  congested 
city,  let  us  say,  philanthropists  have  found  that  public  dance 
halls  under  proper  supervision  lessen  the  evils  that  threaten  the 
young  people  of  the  slums.  It  does  not  therefore  follow  that 
every  small  city  and  town  needs  municipal  encouragement  of 
dancing.  The  argument  depends  for  its  weight  on  the  resem- 
blance in  kind  and  in  magnitude  of  the  social  conditions  in  the 
two  places.  An  opponent  might  meet  it  either  by  questioning 
the  evidence  or  by  denying  the  validity  of  the  reasoning.  He 
might  say,  "You  have  not  really  proved  that  these  municipal 
dance  halls  have  drawn  many  young  people  away  from  the  bad 
places  run  by  lawless  persons;  you  have  merely  shown  that  they 
are  well  attended."  Or  he  might  deny  that  conditions  in  New 
York  throw  any  light  on  what  should  be  done  in  Albany  or 
Syracuse.  In  other  words,  he  might  ask,  'Ts  it  really  a  fact?" 
or  "Does  the  fact  show  what  you  think  it  shows?"  All  argu- 
ment is  made  up  of  these  two  kinds  of  proof  —  evidence  to 
prove  facts,  and  reasoning  to  relate  them  to  the  issues.     Law- 


228  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

yers  have  written  many  volumes  to  expound  the  proper  Hmita- 
tions  and  rules  of  evidence.  Philosophers  have  built  up  elabo- 
rate systems  of  logic  to  show  the  nature  of  what  we  call  reason- 
ing, and  to  expose  the  many  deceptions,  or  fallacies,  to  which 
it  is  liable.  In  this  chapter  a  few  hints  only  can  be  given,  of 
a  most  elementary  nature,  yet  indispensable  for  any  argumen- 
tation worthy  of  the  name. 

163.  Evidence  of  persons  and  evidence  of  things.  When  a 
student  summoned  before  an  honor  committee  reluctantly  testi- 
fies that  he  saw  two  of  his  classmates  comparing  notes  and  ex- 
changing papers  during  an  examination,  that  is  personal  or 
testimonial  evidence.  When  the  committee  compares  the  two 
papers  and  finds  them,  in  some  portions,  precisely  alike,  and 
both  wrong,  that  is  circumstantial  evidence,  or  evidence  of 
things.  Circumstantial  evidence  plays  a  very  large  part  in 
criminal  law  and  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  but  not  in  col- 
lege argumentation  and  debating.  We  are  all  the  time  inferring 
one  thing  from  another  without  hearing  anybody's  testimony 
about  it.  A  crowd  on  the  street  corner  means  an  accident,  or 
a  delayed  street  car,  or  a  baseball  score.  These  are  rela- 
tions of  cause  and  effect.  A  flag  at  half-mast  has  no  such 
relation  to  the  death  of  a  public  man;  it  is  a  sign,  like  the 
railway  signals,  or  the  red  light  on  the  port  side  of  a  steamer. 
Correct  interpretation  of  circumstantial  evidence  is  important 
in  a  hundred  practical  ways,  but  its  place  in  our  present  in- 
vestigation is  small.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  evidence 
used  to  prove  facts  in  questions  argued  by  students  is  personal 
evidence,  testimony. 

164.  Tests  of  evidence.  There  is  a  real  difference,  not 
merely  a  formal  one,  between  oral  and  written  (or  printed) 
testimony.  The  difference  is  that  the  witness  who  is  actually 
present  to  tell  his  story  can  be  questioned  by  one  side  in  such  a 
way  as  to  bring  out  the  specific  points  to  be  established  and  can 
also  be  questioned,  or  cross-examined,  by  the  other  side  with 


ARGUMENTATION  229 

intent  to  lessen  or  destroy  the  force  of  his  testimony.  The 
evidence  of  written  letters  or  depositions,  on  the  other  hand,  or  of 
printed  books,  magazines,  and  newspapers,  is  subject  to  no 
such  prompt  and  easy  scrutiny.  On  this  account  it  is  all  the 
more  important  that  printed  evidence  should  be  carefully 
weighed,  both  by  the  side  which  offers  it  and  by  the  side  which 
desires,  if  possible,  to  neutralize  its  effect.  The  value  of  testi- 
mony depends  on  three  factors:  (i)  the  general  honesty  and 
intelligence  of  the  witness;  (2)  his  special  knowledge  of  the 
subject  on  which  he  testifies;  (3)  the  presence  or  absence  of 
any  motive  which  might  bias  the  testimony  of  an  honest  man. 
Student  debaters  have  a  way  of  using  material  taken  from  books 
and  magazines  without  the  slightest  inquiry  on  these  three 
points;  and  their  opponents  are  often  blind  or  foolish  enough 
to  let  them  do  it.  We  may  indeed  presume,  in  many  discus- 
sions, that  the  very  appearance  of  the  passage  in  question  in  a 
reputable  magazine,  or  a  well-known  book  of  reference,  guaran- 
tees the  honesty  and  intelligence  of  its  author,  thus  passing 
over  the  first  test  of  evidence  above  named.  The  other  two, 
however,  should  never  be  neglected.  They  amount  to  these 
two  questions:  Has  the  writer  first-hand,  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  subject?  Has  he  any  special  motive  which  may  influ- 
ence his  view?  Frequently  the  writer  best  acquainted  with  the 
facts  is  also  the  most  partisan ;  and  not  seldom  one  who  appears 
at  first  charmingly  impartial  is  found  to  be  writing  about 
things  of  which  he  has  no  direct  knowledge. 

Ideal  witnesses  cannot  always  be  had.  We  must  take  evidence 
as  we  find  it,  discounting  it,  or  insisting  on  its  unusual  weight, 
according  to  circumstances.  Thus,  in  undertaking  to  prove 
that  high  school  fraternities  tolerate  idleness  and  gambling, 
parents  would  be  poor  witnesses;  for  there  is  no  class  of  citi- 
zens in  the  community  who  know  so  little  about  what  their  chil- 
dren are  doing  as  the  parents  of  these  youths  who  have  given 
high  school  fraternities  a  bad  name.    Any  teacher  in  the  school, 


230  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

any  minister  in  the  town,  any  policeman  on  the  beat,  would  be  a 
more  credible  witness.  The  parents  of  non-fraternity  students 
might  know  much  more  about  the  delinquencies  of  their  neigh- 
bors' children,  but  their  testimony  would  be  discounted  — 
rightly  or  not  —  on  the  ground  of  jealousy.  The  janitor  of 
the  fraternity's  rooms  would  be  biased  by  favors  received;  a 
discharged  janitor  by  his  grudge;  and  so  on.  To  take  another 
example,  suppose  in  a  discussion  of  some  municipal  question 
the  testimony  of  persons  in  various  other  cities  is  sought  as  to 
the  success  of  similar  experiments  elsewhere.  Political  preju- 
dice and  local  pride  will  make  many  city  officials  and  business 
men  poor  witnesses  in  such  a  case.  The  good  witness  will  be 
the  man  who  points  out  both  merits  and  defects,  and  accords 
to  the  undertaking  a  qualified  approval  or  a  reluctant  disap- 
proval. We  say  that  such  a  man  is  disinterested  —  a  very 
different  thing  from  saying  that  he  is  uninterested.  He  is  a 
good  witness  because  he  can  detach  his  personal  preferences 
from  the  subject  and  state  facts  as  they  are. 

165.  Opinions  are  not  proof .  This  virtue  of  detachment  as  a 
mark  of  a  good  witness  is  worth  insisting  on.  A  common  fault 
in  student  argumentation  is  to  select  the  most  extreme  partisan 
utterances  to  offer  as  proof.  The  trouble  is  that  such  debaters 
fail  to  see  what  they  are  trying  to  prove.  They  are  ignoring 
the  issues  of  fact  and  emphasizing  the  issues  of  opinion.  When- 
ever the  mere  opinions  of  a  writer  as  to  a  certain  policy  are 
offered  as  evidence,  it  is  always  the  right  of  the  opponent  to 
reply  that  the  question  cannot  be  argued  by  weighing  other 
people's  opinions;  it  must  be  answered  by  weighing  their  testi- 
mony as  to  the  facts,  and  working  out  our  own  opinion  from 
them.  There  is  a  strange  misapprehension  of  the  meaning  of 
proof  at  this  point.  Why  does  it  matter  what  X  and  Y  and 
Z  think  about  the  desirability  of  the  proposed  policy?  The 
argument  is  not  about  what  they  think,  but  about  what  they 
know.     If  the  question  happens  to  be  about  the  use  of  school 


ARGUMENTATION  231 

buildings  as  social  centers,  we  do  not  care  whether  the  mayor 
of  one  town  and  the  school  superintendent  of  another  like  that 
policy  or  not;  we  do  not  care  much  for  their  opinion  on  the 
question  whether  it  has  been  a  success.  What  we  wish  from 
them,  as  reputable  citizens  who  know  the  facts,  is  to  tell  us 
whether  the  social  centers  have  been  well  attended,  what  class 
of  people  has  patronized  them,  what  the  per  capita  cost  has 
been,  what  results  have  been  observed,  and  so  on.  If  we  can 
find  out  what  has  really  taken  place  in  that  town,  we  can  form 
our  own  opinion.  The  opinions  of  others  may  be  interesting 
as  showing  the  trend  of  public  sentiment,  but  they  add  nothing 
to  proof. 

There  is  one  kind  of  argument  that  forms  an  exception  to 
this  rule, —  the  so-called  argument  from  authority.  It  has  very 
small  place  in  ordinary  discussions.  The  argument  from  au- 
thority is  the  use  of  testimony  from  a  witness  of  such  eminence 
and  unquestioned  impartiality  that  his  word  carries  conviction 
to  all.  There  are  few  questions  commonly  argued  in  which 
this  kind  of  evidence  as  to  matters  of  opinion  could  be  needed 
in  the  proof;  for  the  point  sought  to  be  so  established  would 
usually  be  a  point  admitted  in  advance,  and  not  among  the 
issues  at  all.  Expert  testimony  of  the  ordinary  sort  offered  in 
the  courts  is  very  far  from  being  entitled  to  claim  such  author- 
ityo  For  every  expert  witness  on  one  side  another  expert  can 
usually  be  found  on  the  opposite  side;  and  this  is  true  not  only 
of  lawsuits  and  criminal  trials,  but  also  of  any  ordinary  ques- 
tion involving  technical  matters.  Expert  witnesses  are  good  wit- 
nesses so  long  as  they  confine  themselves  to  facts  —  provided 
they  can  be  shown  to  be  reasonably  impartial;  but  when  they 
begin  to  state  their  opinions,  such  testimony  proves  nothing  more 
than  that  the  people  who  know  most  about  the  subject  disagree 
—  which  fact  we  knew  already.  Little  attention  need  be  given 
in  most  arguments  to  testimony  as  to  opinions  without  the  facts 
on  which  the  opinions  are  based.     The  sort  of  cases  in  which  such 


232  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

evidence  is  valid  is,  for  example,  the  opinion  of  a  college  president 
as  to  the  meaning  of  a  college  rule ;  the  appeal  to  the  scriptures  for 
principles  of  right  and  wrong  (but  not  for  specific  applications  of 
such  principles  to  modern  conditions);  the  constitutional  deci- 
sions of  Chief  Justice  Marshall.  These  are  not  the  kind  of  ques- 
tions that  are  likely  to  be  at  issue  in  ordinary  discussion.  With 
this  one  exception,  all  evidence  must  be  directed  to  the  establish- 
ment of  facts,  not  to  the  question  of  opinions.  For  the  support 
of  our  opinions,  we  use  the  facts  proved  by  evidence  as  inter- 
preted by  what  is  called  reasoning. 

I660  Reasoning  is  defending  one  proposition  by  another. 
The  little  word  for  is  the  sign  of  reasoning.  Just  what  we 
mean  by  it  only  the  philosophers  can  tell  us;  yet  every  ma- 
ture person  uses  it  constantly  without  being  at  all  troubled  by 
its  mystery.  Immature  persons  do  not  use  it;  they  conceal 
their  reasoning  under  other  labels.  Such  words  as  for,  since, 
inasmuch  as,  employed  as  the  links  of  thought,  show  that  the 
speaker  has  deliberately  compared  two  propositions,  and  be- 
lieves the  second  to  be  a  good  reason  for  the  first.  "Entrance 
examinations  should  be  required  of  all  applicants  for  admission 
to  this  college,  for  admission  of  some  by  certificate  and  others 
by  examination  leads  to  injustice."  Here  are  two  opinions 
linked  together  by  the  conjunction /or.  This  little  word  seems 
to  mean  merely,  "if  you  accept  the  second  clause,  you  must  also 
accept  the  first."  It  really  means  more  than  that;  it  stands  for 
two  other  opinions  not  expressed  at  all:  (i)  that  anything  which 
leads  to  injustice  should  be  changed  —  a  proposition  which 
sounds  harmless  enough,  and  which  if  suitably  guarded  would 
probably  be  admitted  by  the  negative;  and  (2)  that  entrance 
exammations  required  of  all  candidates  would  remove  the 
alleged  injustice  of  the  present  system  —  an  opinion  which  would 
certainly  not  be  shared  by  the  enemies  of  entrance  examinations. 
The  reasoning  involved  in  the  complete  sentence  above  quoted 
may  be  formally  represented  thus: 


ARGUMENTATION  233 

Aff .  I .     Anything  which  leads  to  injustice  should  be  changed. 

Aff.  2.     The  certificate  plan  of  admission  to  this  college  leads  to  injustice. 

Aff.  3.     Therefore  the  certificate  plan  should  be  changed. 

Aff.  4.  Any  change  from  the  certificate  plan  should  be  such  as  to  remove 
the  alleged  injustice. 

Aff.  5.  Entrance  examinations  required  of  all  applicants  in  all  the  sub- 
jects presented  for  admission  would  remove  the  injustice. 

Aff.  6.  Therefore  entrance  examinations  should  be  required  of  all 
applicants  in  all  subjects  presented  for  admission. 

Of  these  six  propositions  the  second  is  the  premise  and  the 
sixth  the  conclusion  of  the  sentence  first  quoted;  the  first  is  a 
general  statement  which  would  be  accepted  by  the  negative, 
with  the  important  addition  of  the  words  "if  practicable." 
But  the  fourth  is  a  general  statement,  self-evident  when  put  into 
words,  which  the  affirmative  would  not  be  likely  to  bring  into 
the  discussion  at  all  except  when  pressed  by  the  negative,  for  the 
reason  that  the  affirmative  desires  to  have  the  following  (the 
fifth)  proposition  accepted  without  proof.  The  afiirmative 
would  like  to  proceed  upon  the  assumption  that  his  only  task 
is  to  show  injustice  in  the  certificate  plan,  supposing  that  the 
only  alternative  is  the  system  of  entrance  examinations  for 
all.  This  course  the  negative  will  not  permit  him  to  follow. 
Therefore  the  affirmative  prepares  to  defend  not  only  the 
second  but  also  the  fifth  of  the  six  propositions,  in  order  to 
establish  the  sixth  as  his  conclusion.  In  order  to  defend  the 
second  he  reasons  as  follows: 

Aff.  7.  Any  plan  of  admission  which  admits  some  candidates  and  rejects 
others  equally  well  prepared  leads  to  injustice. 

Aff.  8.  The  certificate  plan  admits  some  candidates  and  rejects  others 
equally  well  prepared. 

Aff.  2.     Therefore  the  certificate  plan  leads  to  injustice. 

At  this  point  the  negative  questions  both  the  major  (7)  and 
the  minor  (8)  premise  of  the  syllogism.^     For  the  alleged  fact 

'A  syllogism  is  an  argument  stated  in  the  form  of  three  propositions,  of  which  the 
third  is  the  conclusion.  The  first,  or  major  premise,  is  a  general  statement,  of  which  the 
second,  or  minor  premise,  is  alleged  to  be  a  particular  case.     The  major  and  minor 


234  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

that  some  students  admitted  on  the  certificate  plan  are  better 
prepared  than  others  (8)  the  negative  demands  evidence;  not 
because  there  is  any  question  that  some  candidates  are  better 
i:)repared  than  others,  but  because  the  negative  desires  to  see 
what  kind  and  amount  of  evidence  the  affirmative  can  produce. 
The  negative  wishes  to  have  this  evidence  brought  out  in  order 
that  he  may  perhaps  use  some  of  it  in  a  syllogism  of  his  own,  to 
this  effect: 

Neg.  I.  Defects  due  to  lax  administration  of  a  plan  should  not  be 
charged  against  the  plan. 

Neg.  2.  Unequal  preparation  of  students  admitted  under  the  certificate 
plan  in  this  institution  is  due  to  lax  administration. 

Neg.  3.  Therefore  unequal  preparation  of  candidates  should  not  be 
charged  against  the  certificate  plan. 

In  meeting  this  attack  the  affirmative  has  a  choice  of  two 
methods.  He  may  assert  (i)  that  the  major  premise  of  the 
negative  syllogism  is  unsound  without  the  addition  of  the 
qualifying  clause  "unless  the  plan  is  such  that  it  cannot  be 
rigidly  administered."  Or  (2)  he  may  attempt  to  disprove  the 
minor  premise  by  producing  testimony  of  administrative  officers 
tending  to  show  that  the  enforcement  of  the  plan  has  not  been 
lax. 

Down  to  this  point  we  have  considered  only  the  defence 
of  the  affirmative's  second  proposition  (that  the  certificate  plan 
leads  to  injustice).  We  have  not  followed  it  up  to  anything  like 
a  demonstration,  but  only  far  enough  to  show  how  one  step  leads 
to  another,  both  in  the  defence  and  in  the  attack.     The  fifth 

premises  have  one  term,  called  the  middle  term,  in  common.  For  example,  in  the 
syllogism  composed  of  7,  8,  2,  the  middle  term  is  "a  plan  of  admission  which  admits 
some  candidates  and  rejects  others  equally  well  prepared."  The  middle  term  does  not 
appear  in  the  conclusion;  and  the  purpose  of  expanding  an  argument  into  the  syllogistic 
form  is  to  discover  and  bring  out  the  implied  middle  term.  Ordinarily  reasoning  pro- 
ceeds on  the  basis  of  abbreviated  or  condensed  syllogisms  from  which  some  of  the 
premises  are  omitted;  such  abbreviated  forms  of  argumentative  sentences  are  called 
enthymemi's.  The  original  sentence  above  quoted  in  regard  to  entrance  examinations, 
which  we  are  now  analyzing,  is  an  enthymeme.  The  word  means  "in  the  mind,"  its 
etymology  referring  to  the  fact  that  in  an  enthymeme  something  is  held  in  mind  but 
not  put  in  words;  implied,  not  expressed. 


ARGUMENTATION  235 

proposition  of  the  afl5rmative,  however,  (that  entrance  exam- 
inations for  all  would  be  an  adequate  remedy)  also  needs  defence; 
and  the  defence  is  more  difficult  in  that  it  attempts  to  deal  with 
the  future,  to  predict  what  would  happen  if  the  proposed  change 
were  adopted.  This  part  of  the  proof  might  begin  with  some 
such  syllogism  as  this: 

Aff.  9.  Any  system  of  admission  which  gives  all  candidates  an  equal 
chance  is  just. 

A£f.  10.  Entrance  examinations  required  of  all  candidates  give  all  an 
equal  chance. 

Aff.  1 1 .  Therefore  entrance  examinations  required  of  all  would  promote 
justice. 

The  negative  accepts  the  major  premise  and  rejects  the  minor, 
arguing  as  follows: 

Neg.  4.  Any  system  of  admission  that  stakes  everything  on  the  can- 
didate's physical  and  nervous  condition  during  three  strenuous  days  in  hot 
weather  is  unjust. 

Neg.  5.     The  proposed  plan  does  this. 

Neg.  6.     Therefore  the  proposed  plan  is  unjust. 

Or  as  follows : 

Neg.  7.  Any  system  of  admission  that  takes  no  account  of  the  judgment 
of  teachers  who  have  known  the  candidate  four  years,  and  stakes  everything 
upon  the  judgment  of  young  college  instructors  unacquainted  with  the 
candidate,  is  unjust. 

Neg.  8.     The  proposed  plan  does  this. 

Neg.  9.     Therefore  the  proposed  plan  is  unjust. 

Or  thus: 

Neg.  10.  Any  system  of  admission  that  makes  it  difficult  or  impossible 
for  students  who  have  been  out  of  school  a  year  or  two  to  get  into  college 
is  unjust. 

Neg.  II.     The  examination  plan  does  this. 

Neg.  12.     Therefore  the  examination  plan  is  unjust. 

Observe  the  method  of  defence  and  of  attack  by  reasoning :  each 
argument,  originally  stated  in  the  abbreviated  form  (enthy- 


236  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

meme) ,  consisting  of  a  compound  sentence  of  two  clauses  joined 
by /or,  is  mentally  expanded  into  the  syllogistic  form;  then,  and 
then  only,  can  we  clearly  perceive  whether  it  is  the  major  or 
the  minor  premise,  or  both,  which  need  defence.  The  affirma- 
tive needs  to  know  this  in  order  to  support  his  case;  the  negative 
needs  to  know  it  in  order  to  attack  at  the  vulnerable  point. 
Unsound  reasoning  is  dangerous  for  the  side  which  unconsciously 
employs  it,  even  when  no  actual  antagonist  is  waiting  to  take 
advantage  of  it;  for  to  mislead  oneself  in  a  one-sided  argument  by 
underestimating  the  strength  of  the  silent  opposition  is  to  acquire 
a  most  pernicious  intellectual  habit. 

167.  Two  kinds  of  reasoning:  inductive  and  deductive. 
We  reason  either  from  a  number  of  special  cases  to  a  general  prin- 
ciple, or  from  a  general  principle  to  a  special  case.  For  example, 
by  observing  a  large  number  of  fever  patients  we  may  discover 
the  general  principle  that  the  pulse  rises  with  the  temperature; 
this  is  called  inductive  reasoning  (leading  in  from  many  points  on 
the  circumference  to  the  common  center).  On  the  other  hand, 
having  demonstrated  this  principle  by  our  own  observations  or 
learned  it  from  books,  we  may  be  quite  sure,  in  any  special  case, 
that  the  pulse  of  a  person  with  a  temperature  of  103°  is  above 
normal.  This  is  deductive  reasoning  {leading  out  or  away 
from  the  general  principle  at  the  center  to  a  special  case  on 
the  circumference) .  Science  gives  us  by  induction  a  large  num- 
ber of  general  principles  about  the  physical  world,  upon  which 
we  act  in  daily  life.  When  we  reason  about  a  particular  case, 
we  deduce.  All  the  reasoning  about  entrance  examinations  in 
the  previous  section  is  deductive  reasoning.  An  example  of 
inductive  reasoning  applied  to  that  subject  would  be  an  inquiry 
into  the  grades  received  by  college  freshmen  admitted  on  certi- 
ficate and  by  those  admitted  on  examination,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover whether  any  general  difference  can  be  proved. 

Observation  of  human  nature  and  society  gives  us  many  gen- 
eral principles  of  conduct,  much  less  uniform  than  scientific 


ARGUMENTATION  237 

laws,  from  which  we  are  Hkely  to  reason  deductively  with  rather 
too  much  assurance.  Often,  in  fact,  we  reason  deductively  from 
assumed  general  principles  which,  when  stated,  are  seen  to  be 
false.  Thus  it  is  a  common  thing  to  find  people  reasoning  like 
this:  "The  hours  of  labor  should  be  further  decreased,  for  laborers 
need  more  time  for  self -improvement  and  healthful  exercise." 
This  really  rests  on  the  assumption  that  men  in  general  use  their 
leisure  time  for  self -improvement  and  exercise.  Much  deductive 
argument  about  the  elective  system  assumes  that  students  with 
the  largest  liberty  of  choice  in  studies  select  the  best  subjects  for 
their  needs;  a  proposition  which  is  certainly  not  generally 
admitted,  and  which  could  hardly  be  established  inductively 
without  very  wide  investigation.  The  two  kinds  of  reasoning 
are  found  together  in  almost  all  arguments,  but  frequently  the 
inductive  reasoning  is  concealed,  as  in  the  preceding  examples, 
in  a  mere  implied  assumption  based  on  inadequate  grounds. 
This  error  is,  as  we  shall  see,  one  of  the  most  common  fallacies. 
168.  Proof  arises  from  the  analysis.  In  seeking  evidence 
and  reasoning  to  support  a  proposition,  we  are  guided  by  the 
statement  of  the  issues.  Those,  it  will  be  remembered,  are  the 
questions  which  must  be  answered,  affirmatively  or  negatively, 
in  order  to  establish  the  proposition.  An  issue  of  fact  calls 
for  evidence;  an  issue  of  opinion  calls  for  reasoning,  based 
either  on  the  evidence  or  on  generally  received  principles.  It 
is  usually  easier  to  decide  what  kind  of  evidence  will  best 
support  a  fact  than  to  see  what  sort  of  reasoning  will  best 
defend  an  opinion.  This  is  because  reasoning  must  be  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  the  audience  for  which  the  argument  is 
intended,  while  good  evidence  is  good  for  any  audience.  Let 
us  take  a  set  of  issues  arising  out  of  a  question,  and  see  what 
kind  of  evidence  and  of  reasoning  would  be  appropriate  for 
different  audiences.  Suppose  the  question  to  be  as  follows: 
"Are  Sunday  afternoon  band  concerts  in  our  public  parks 
desirable?"    After  examination  of  the  history  of  the  question 


238  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

we  agree  to  define  "desirable"  as  "promoting  the  physical, 
mental,  and  moral  welfare  of  the  community."  Contentions 
for  the  negative  perhaps  contain  several  evidently  irrelevant 
points,  which  are  excluded.  The  negative  admits  that  the 
general  principle  of  using  pubhc  funds  for  public  recreation 
is  sound  within  reasonable  limits;  that  the  air  of  the  parks 
is  better  than  that  of  the  city;  that  afternoon  concerts  need 
not  interfere  with  church  attendance;  that  it  is  better  for  young 
men  to  spend  a  Sunday  afternoon  at  a  park  concert  than  loafing 
around  pool-rooms  or  carousing  at  picnic  resorts.  Both 
sides  agree  to  waive  discussion  of  the  strictly  religious  ques- 
tion implied  in  the  term  "Sabbath-breaking,"  and  to  confine 
the  argument  to  physical,  mental,  and  moral  welfare.  The 
issues  turn  out  to  be  somewhat  like  these: 

1.  Are  Sunday  concerts  necessary  to  attract  the  working  people  to  the 
parks? 

2.  Are  these  concerts  attended  by  any  considerable  number  of  dis- 
orderly persons? 

3.  Are  the  moral  conditions  objectionable? 

4.  Is  the  music  of  a  sort  to  improve  or  to  corrupt  musical  taste? 

5.  Are  the  concerts  unduly  expensive? 

6.  Do  the  concerts  interfere  with  the  rights  of  those  who  prefer  a  quiet 
Sunday? 

All  these  issues  may  in  a  way  be  regarded  as  issues  of  opinion ; 
but  the  first  five  evidently  depend  chiefly  upon  evidence  and 
in  that  sense  may  be  called  issues  of  fact.  For  example,  the 
first  requires  comparative  figures  of  attendance  at  the  parks  with 
and  without  music  — •  not  at  different  parks  on  the  same  day,  but 
at  the  same  parks  in  different  seasons,  before  and  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  concerts.  The  second  issue  involves  a  matter  of 
opinion  in  the  words  "considerable"  and  "disorderly,"  but 
after  all  it  is  chiefly  a  question  for  evidence.  The  best  wit- 
nesses would  be  unprejudiced  policemen,  and  reputable  citizens 
who  regularly  attend  the  concerts.  The  third  issue  also  calls 
for  an  opinion  on  the  meaning  of  "objectionable,"  but  it  too  is 


ARGUMENTATION  239 

principally  a  question  of  fact.  Policemen  would  not  be  the  best 
witnesses  here.  They  know  well  enough  what  "disorderly" 
means,  but  their  views  about  other  kinds  of  park  behavior  might 
be  rather  too  lenient.  On  the  issue  regarding  the  music  we 
should  have  an  interesting  controversy  as  to  the  matter  of  opinion 
involved;  but  the  first  and  most  important  thing  to  do  is  to 
examine  the  concert  programs  for  a  season  (including  encores) 
and  classify  the  numbers.  What  proportion  of  classic  music, 
"sacred"  music,  patriotic  airs,  operatic  and  descriptive  music, 
dance  tunes,  "ragtime"?  How  much  of  the  music  is  above  the 
taste  of  the  majority,  how  much  below  it?  On  the  issue  of 
expense,  the  "unduly"  implies  an  opinion,  but  the  opinion  must 
rest  on  a  definite  statement  of  the  total  expense  for  a  season, 
divided  by  the  total  estimated  attendance,  giving  the  per  capita 
cost  of  Sunday  concerts. 

The  sixth  issue,  however,  is  in  no  sense  an  issue  of  fact. 
No  evidence  can  be  used  to  meet  it.  What  sort  of  reasoning 
will  be  most  effective?  That  will  depend  on  the  character  of 
the  audience.  If  the  hearers  are  conservative  church-members 
who  never  visit  the  parks  on  Sunday,  the  reasoning  of  an 
affirmative  speaker  on  this  sixth  issue  would  be  based  on  that 
very  fact;  there  is  no  interference  with  the  rights  of  these 
hearers,  for  their  quiet  rest-day  is  not  interfered  with.  But  if 
these  hearers  are  parents  whose  children  have  got  into  the 
habit  of  going  off  to  the  parks  on  Sunday  afternoons,  the 
situation  is  different.  The  affirmative  speaker  must  then  try 
to  point  out  that  this  desertion  of  the  home  by  the  young 
people  is  hardly  to  be  charged  to  the  concerts,  but  to  a  general 
centrifugal  tendency  seen  all  about  us.  He  will  admit  that 
this  tendency  is  to  be  regretted,  and  resisted  by  proper  means, 
such  as  increasing  the  home  attractions;  but  he  will  deny  that 
stopping  the  concerts  would  keep  the  boys  and  girls  at  home. 
If  necessary,  he  will  support  this  position  by  reasoning  based 
on  the  similar  inlluence  of  Sunday  motoring,  motorcycling, 


240  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

tennis,  golf,  and  other  amusements  with  which  the  municipality 
has  nothing  to  do. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  affirmative  speaker  before  an  audience 
of  working  people  would  have  very  httle  difficulty  in  finding 
reasons  to  convince  them  that  the  concerts  do  not  interfere  with 
the  rights  of  their  more  prosperous  neighbors.  He  might,  as  a 
matter  of  form  —  though  they  probably  agree  with  him  already 
—  offer  such  reasons  as  these:  (i)  In  this  country  the  majority 
rules.  (2)  The  well-to-do  classes  have  many  opportunities  for 
recreation  which  are  not  open  to  the  working  people  for  lack  of 
time  and  money.  (3)  Sunday  concerts  are  becoming  common 
everywhere.  This  last  reason,  it  will  be  noticed,  really  rests  on 
this  implied  assumption:  Whatever  is  generally  accepted  can- 
not be  an  interference  with  the  rights  of  a  majority  of  the  com- 
munity.   Its  soundness  is  likely  to  be  questioned  by  the  negative. 

In  general  it  may  be  said,  regarding  this  matter  of  selecting  a 
line  of  argument  to  meet  an  issue  of  opinion,  that  one's  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  is  the  best  guide;  but  that  advantage 
should  never  be  taken  of  popular  prejudices  or  fallacies  to 
make  out  a  case.  Such  sharp  practice  is  likely  to  lose  the 
debate,  and  sure  to  corrupt  the  debater.  The  immediate  aim 
of  argumentation  is  to  convince,  but  its  ultimate  aim  is  always 
to  make  reason  and  right  prevail. 

169.  Direct  proof  and  refutation.  Up  to  this  point  in  the 
discussion  of  proof  no  distinction  has  been  made  between  direct 
proof  and  refutation.  Direct  proof  is  evidence  or  reasoning 
offered  by  one  side  to  support  its  own  contentions;  refutation 
is  evidence  or  reasoning  designed  to  meet  real  or  assumed  attack. 
In  a  debate  this  distinction  is  a  sharp  one;  for  most  of  the 
refutation  comes  in  the  latter  part  of  the  debate,  in  separate 
speeches.  Formal  debating,  however,  is  not  the  commonest 
kind  of  argumentation.  More  often,  in  informal  discussions, 
the  refutation  of  an  opponent's  contentions  comes  midway  in 
the  proof.     As  a  rule,  it  is  best  neither  to  begin  nor  to  end  with 


ARGUMENTATION  241 

rebuttal:  not  to  begin  with  it,  for  that  seems  to  imply  that 
one  has  little  positive  proof;  not  to  end  with  it,  for  that  leaves 
the  last  impression  on  the  hearer's  minds  one  of  defense  rather 
than  attack.  In  an  argument  to  which  there  is  to  be  no  real 
reply,  the  refutation  must  be  based  on  what  one  knows  to  be 
the  probable  doubts  or  objections  in  the  minds  of  the  audience. 
Under  those  circumstances  a  speaker  should  beware  of  inventing 
imaginary  objections  or  multiplying  trivial  difhculties  merely 
to  answer  them.  Refutation  should  be  massed  on  a  few  really 
serious  objections  to  his  position  which  the  speaker  has  met  in 
his  investigation;  objections  of  which  he  has  felt  the  force,  and 
upon  which  he  can  concentrate  his  defensive  argument.  Scat- 
tering and  frivolous  rebuttal  is  the  bane  of  college  debating. 
The  strongest  argument  is  that  which  states  the  opposite  side 
as  candidly  as  possible,  sometimes  even  with  apparent  sympathy, 
and  then  proceeds  to  show  that  the  positive  proof  outweighs  it. 
To  omit  refutation  altogether,  however,  is  fatal.  That  amounts 
to  ignoring  one  or  more  of  the  issues. 

170.  The  structure  of  proof.  Having  now  considered  what 
is  meant  by  proof,  in  its  two  main  aspects  of  evidence  and 
reasoning,  we  proceed  to  inquire  how  the  material  of  the  proof 
is  to  be  arranged.  This  process  of  arrangement  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts:  (i)  the  division  of  the  proof  into  its  principal 
propositions;  (2)  the  grouping  of  evidence  to  support  these 
principal  propositions.  While  the  selection  of  material  for  the 
proof  depends  on  the  analysis,  as  already  shown,  the  main  divi- 
sions of  the  completed  proof  are  not  always  stated  in  the  same 
form  or  arranged  in  the  same  order  as  the  issues.  In  the  question 
of  modern  language  teaching,  analyzed  in  sections  154-158,  the 
three  main  divisions  of  the  affirmative  argument  may  be  ar- 
ranged as  are  the  issues: 

I.    The  present  method  of  college  teaching  of  modern  languages  is  un- 
satisfactory.    (Direct  proof.) 


242  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

II.  The  direct  method  is  adapted  to  improve  these  unsatisfactory 
conditions.     (Direct  proof.) 

III.  The  direct  method  is  not  impracticable  in  college  teaching.  (Refu- 
tation.) 

This  arrangement,  however,  brings  refutation  at  the  end, 
which  is  undesirable.  Since  III  cannot  logically  be  placed  be- 
fore II,  we  may,  if  we  wish  to  avoid  the  disadvantage  of  ending 
with  refutation,  add  a  fourth  general  proposition  such  as  this: 

IV.  The  direct  method  is  in  line  with   modem  educational  progress. 

A  division  of  the  affirmative  proof  for  the  Sunday  concert 
question,  on  the  other  hand,  will  hardly  be  based  on  the  six 
issues  as  stated.  It  will  perhaps  be  looked  for  rather  in  the 
threefold  definition  of  "desirable" —  promoting  the  physical, 
mental,  and  moral  welfare  of  the  community.  This,  with  the 
addition  of  a  proposition  bearing  on  the  expense,  would  take 
form  as  follows: 

I.  Sunday  concerts  in  the  parks  promote  the  health  of  the  wage- 
earning  classes. 

II.  Much  of  the  music  has  an  educational  value. 

III.  Such  an  innocent  amusement  protects  young  people  against  moral 
dangers. 

IV.  The  per  capita  cost  is  very  small. 

A  speaker  for  the  negative  on  the  Sunday  concert  question 
would  not  be  likely  to  divide  his  direct  proof  on  this  basis, 
chiefly  because  he  cannot  deny  a  certain  physical  benefit  in 
anything  that  draws  people  to  the  parks,  and  therefore  would 
not  begin  his  attack  at  that  point.  He  might  adopt  some  such 
outline  as  this: 

I.  Sunday  recreation  should  be  such  as  promotes  rest  and  quiet  and 
encourages  family  gatherings. 

II.  Park  concerts  crowd  the  people  into  one  or  two  acres  of  a  large  area 
under  conditions  that  are  noisy,  unrcstful,  and  not  favorable  to  the  comfort 
of  family  groups. 

III.  The  music  is  usually  of  the  sort  called  popular,  sometimes  vulgar. 
and  rarely  upUfting. 


ARGUMENTATION  243 

IV.     Moral  risks  are  not  absent,  and  the  crowding  increases  these. 
V.     The  parks  would  be  well  patronized  without  concerts,  especially  if 
the  money  so  saved  were  spent  on  increasing  the  other  attractions. 

Of  these  divisions  the  first  and  second  are  derived  from  the 
sixth  issue;  the  third  and  fourth,  which  are  in  the  nature  of 
refutation,  come  from  the  third  and  fourth  issues;  the  fifth 
division  corresponds  to  the  first  issue.  In  other  words,  the 
original  analysis  led  to  a  statement  of  issues  which,  for  pur- 
poses of  an  effective  negative  proof,  is  considerably  changed  in 
order.  In  beginning  to  brief  an  argument,  various  main  divi- 
sions for  the  proof  should  be  written  down  and  criticised  before 
any  further  development  is  attempted.  Any  overlapping  or 
omission  is  more  easily  detected  at  this  point  than  in  the  fully 
worked  out  brief. 

171.  Supporting  the  main  propositions.  Having  decided 
upon  three  to  five  main  divisions  or  propositions  for  the  discussion 
of  a  question,  our  next  task  is  to  defend  them  by  arranging  the 
evidence  and  reasoning.  This  is  to  be  done  in  every  case  by 
stating  first  the  conclusion  and  then  the  evidence  or  reasons 
for  it.  For  example,  a  main  division  of  the  proof  in  an  argu- 
ment against  free  textbooks  might  be  arranged  thus: 

III.     The  free  textbook  system  is  unjust  to  many  taxpayers,  in  that 

A .     It  adds  unjustly  to  the  school  tax  of  those  who  have  no  children 
in  school;  for 

1.  They  already  pay  a  heavy  school  tax,  for 

a.  The  school  tax  in  this  city  for  the  past  ten  years  has 
been  as  follows:  (Figures  should  be  quoted.) 

2.  The  extra  tax  for  free  textbooks  would  be 

a.  $  —  per  $1000  the  first  year. 

b.  $  —  in  subsequent  years. 

3.  The  additional  tax  is  not  justified  by  the  arguments  for  the 
general  school  tax,  for 

a.  The  school  buildings,  teaching  force,  and  other  parts  of 
the  school  system  are  for  general  use,  while  textbooks 
are  for  individual  use. 


244  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

b.  The  other  things  paid  for  out  of  the  school  tax  are 
necessary  to  public  education,  while  free  textbooks  are 
not;  for 

(i)    Free    textbooks    are    already    furnished    to    the 

indigent,  and 
(2)    Others  can  afford  to  buy  them. 

c.  There  is  as  much  reason  for  furnishing  free  stationery 
to  pupils  as  for  providing  textbooks. 

B.  It  adds  unjustly  to  the  school  tax  of  those  taxpayers  who 
support  the  parochial  schools  and  send  their  children  to  them; 
for 

1.  In  their  opinion  the  whole  public  school  tax  is  unjust  to 
them;  but  waiving  discussion  of  this  claim, 

2.  The  textbook  tax  is  unnecessary  as  shown  in  III.  ^.  3.  6. 

3.  These  parents  have  to  buy  parochial  school  textbooks  for 
their  own  children,  and  if  taxed  for  free  books  for  their 
neighbors'  children  would  be  paying  double. 

The  arrangement  of  material  here  illustrated  is  one  carefully 
devised  to  display  most  readily  the  structure  of  proof;  to  show 
exactly  what  evidence  or  reasoning  is  offered  in  support  of  each 
proposition,  and  whether  propositions  are  coordinate  or  subordi- 
nate. It  is  to  be  closely  followed  by  the  student  in  all  argu- 
mentative outlines,  whether  complete  briefs  or  parts  of  briefs. 
There  are  three  rules  that  must  be  observed: 

1.  Complete  sentences  must  be  used  throughout. 

2.  Main  propositions  only  are  numbered  with  roman  numerals  and 
written  the  full  width  of  the  page;  propositions  of  the  second  order  are 
lettered  with  capital  letters  and  indented  one  inch;  propositions  of  the  third 
order  are  numbered  with  arable  numerals  and  indented  two  inches;  proposi- 
tions of  the  fourth  order  are  lettered  with  small  letters  and  indented  three 
inches.  Smaller  subdivisions  may  be  indicated  by  other  suitable  symbols, 
and  must  be  still  further  indented.  Not  merely  the  first  line  of  a  subdivision 
is  to  be  indented,  but  the  whole  of  it. 

3.  Each  subordinate  proposition  must  stand  in  the  relation  of  proof 
(evidence  or  reasoning)  to  the  preceding  proposition  of  the  next  higher  order, 
and  must  be  introduced  by  for,  since,  or  in  that,  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
preceding  statement. 


ARGUMENTATION  245 

These  seem  to  be  matters  of  mere  form,  but  they  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  making  the  brief  a  condensed,  visible 
record  of  clear  and  logical  thought.  Any  departure  from  them 
is  likely  to  mean  that  the  writer  has  not  really  mastered  his 
subject.  The  form  is  at  once  a  means  and  a  test  of  accurate 
thinking,  and  as  such  must  be  respected.  Generations  of 
college  students  have  found  in  it  a  rigid  but  valuable  discipline. 

172.  The  complete  brief.  A  brief  consists  of  threeparts,  the 
introduction,  the  discussion  or  proof,  and  the  conclusion. 
These  three  parts  are  not  numbered;  they  are  simply  entitled 
Introduction;  Discussion;  Conclusion.  In  each  the  main 
divisions  are  separately  numbered  with  roman  numbers:  I,  II, 
III,  etc.,  in  the  introduction;  I,  II,  III  in  the  discussion;  and 
the  same  in  the  conclusion.  The  introduction  is  based  on  the 
preliminary  process  of  analysis,  and  contains  the  following 
parts: 

Introduction 

I.     Statement  of  the  question. 

II.     Short  statement  of  the  origin  of  the  discussion,  or  of  the  way  in 
which  it  comes  to  be  of  present  interest. 

III.  Definition  of  terms. 

IV.  Contentions  of  the  affirmative. 
V.     Contentions  of  the  negative. 

VI.     Enumeration  of  {A)  irrelevant  points; 
{B)  points  admitted; 
(C)  points  waived. 
VII.     Statement  of  the  issues. 

The  discussion,  as  already  indicated,  is  made  up  of  three  to 
five  or  six  main  divisions  of  proof  and  refutation,  each  supported 
by  subordinate  propositions,  arranged  and  numbered  according 
to  the  rules.  The  conclusion  repeats  in  summary  the  main 
divisions  of  the  proof,  bringing  them  together  in  order  to  end 
the  brief  with  a  unified  statement  of  the  case  instead  of  with 
the  detailed  proof  of  the  last  division.     While  it  seems  lilce 


246  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

meaningless  repetition,  it  really  serves  to  remind  both  writer 
and  reader  of  the  structure  of  the  case  in  its  entirety,  and  is 
thus  essential. 

173.  Writing  the  brief.  After  the  study  of  analysis  and  of 
proof,  the  next  step  is  to  prepare  a  complete  brief.  The  student 
has  already  worked  out  an  analysis  of  one  or  two  of  the  suggested 
questions.  This,  prefaced  by  a  short  paragraph  sketching  the 
origin  or  the  recent  history  of  the  question,  becomes  the  intro- 
duction of  the  brief.  For  the  discussion,  a  general  division  of 
proof  and  refutation  into  three  or  more  main  propositions  is 
adopted,  according  to  the  principles  set  forth  on  the  preceding 
pages.  The  best  way  for  the  beginner  to  build  up  this  outHne 
into  a  good  body  of  proof  is  as  follows:  Let  the  first  main  pro- 
position (I)  be  written  at  the  top  of  a  large  sheet  of  paper, 
the  second  at  the  top  of  another  sheet,  and  so  on.  Considering 
what  is  directly  involved  in  the  proof  of  I,  whether  evidence  or 
reasoning,  or  both,  let  the  writer  select  two  or  more  proposi- 
tions which,  if  estabhshed,  would  give  adequate  support  to  I. 
These  are  lettered  A,  B,  etc.,  and  are  written  at  intervals  dow^n 
the  page,  with  plenty  of  blank  space  after  each.  Before  going 
further  one  should  make  sure  that  these  propositions  are  really 
all  parallel  —  not  dependent  one  on  another;  and  that  severally 
and  collectively  they  do  really  support  I.  Then,  and  not  until 
then,  should  the  student  ask  himself  how  A  is  to  be  estab- 
lished; setting  down  as  i,  2,  3  several  items  of  evidence  or  of 
reasoning  which  are  strictly  coordinate,  still  leaving  blank  lines 
beneath  each.  Some  of  these  will  need  no  further  support: 
the  sentences  which  cite  evidence,  and  the  reasons  which  rest 
on  points  admitted  by  both  sides.  Others,  however,  must  be 
carried  one  step  farther,  to  an  a,  b,  c.  In  this  way  the  support 
of  I  is  built  u[)  without  the  danger  of  the  writer's  becoming 
confused  l)y  the  details.  The  risk  in  attempting  to  write  a 
brief  straight  through  is  that  minor  points  will  be  set  down 
out  of  place,  and  that  many  debatable  propositions  will  be  left 


ARGUMENTATION  247 

without  proof.  This  risk  will  be  avoided  by  testing  each  step 
before  going  on.  The  test  is  provided  by  the  words  for,  since, 
which  should  always  be  written  at  the  end  of  each  proposition 
followed  by  another  proposition  subordinate  to  it.  If  the  word 
seems  inappropriate,  something  is  wrong.  Either  the  two 
propositions  so  joined  are  really  coordinate  and  should  be  so 
written,  or  one  of  them  is  out  of  place.  Occasionally  students 
violate  the  proper  order  by  placing  the  proof  before  the  conclu- 
sion, joining  them  with  therefore.  This  practice  is  to  be  avoided 
in  the  brief,  for  it  is  apt  to  lead  to  confusion  of  thought.  Of 
course  in  the  argumentative  speech  or  essay  for  which  the  brief 
is  a  preparation,  no  such  rigid  order  is  demanded. 

174.  Common  fallacies.  An  important  part  of  practice 
in  argumentation  is  to  train  oneself  to  see  weak  points  in  reason- 
ing. Some  of  the  commoner  fallacies  likely  to  be  encountered 
in  ordinary  arguments  are  mentioned  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. First  among  the  errors  in  reasoning  usually  met  with 
is  generalization  from  insufficient  data.  Whenever  in  an  argu- 
■ment  one  states  or  implies  a  general  principle,  not  admitted  in 
advance,  it  is  proper  to  inquire  whether  it  rests  on  a  large  number 
of  representative  cases.  Limited  observation  in  a  single  institu- 
tion may  lead  one  to  assume  that  students  who  undertake  to  work 
their  way  through  college  necessarily  rank  lower  as  a  rule  than 
students  of  equal  ability  who  have  no  outside  work.  This 
might  be  true  in  one  college  for  five  years  together,  and  yet  the 
experience  of  another  college,  or  another  five  years,  might  seem 
to  establish  an  opposite  conclusion.  Really  no  sound  generali- 
zation on  such  a  subject  is  possible  to  an  undergraduate,  unless  he 
has  access  to  figures,  prepared  by  experts,  covering  a  wide  range 
of  material.  False  generalizations  are  apt  to  be  concealed  in 
deductive  reasoning,  as  implied  premises.  "Self-supporting 
students  must  allow  their  college  work  to  suffer,  for  they  have 
not  as  much  time  for  study  as  their  classmates."  This  state- 
ment assumes  (i)  that  mastery  of  studies  is  in  proportion  to 


248  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

the  time  spent  on  them,  and  (2)  that  the  students  with  plenty 
of  leisure  time  use  it  largely  in  study.  To  state  these  assump- 
tions is  to  refute  them.  What  the  speaker  might  reasonably 
have  asserted  is  that  "Self-supporting  students  are  likely  to 
fall  below  their  best  work  in  the  classroom,  for  they  have  often 
too  little  time  for  study."  This,  with  its  "hkely"  and  its 
"often,"  can  easily  be  proved  by  a  reasonable  showing  of  figures 
bearing  on  the  comparative  standing  of  such  students  before 
and  after  beginning  work,  and  on  the  average  amount  of  time 
they  have  for  study.  We  must  beware  of  sweeping  conclusions; 
they  are  difficult  to  establish  and  easy  to  attack. 

Other  common  fallacies  arise  from  misusing  the  arguments 
from  example  and  from  analogy.  The  argument  from  example 
is  an  attempt  to  prove  that  a  certain  thing  is  true  in  the  present 
case  since  it  was  true  in  other  similar  cases.  Thus  the  probable 
success  of  the  honor  system  in  one  college  is  defended  by  its 
admitted  success  in  three  other  colleges.  If  it  can  be  shown, 
however,  that  conditions  in  the  college  in  question  are  radically 
different  from  those  in  the  other  three,  the  examples  prove  noth- 
ing. Still  less  would  the  success  of  the  honor  system  in  any 
number  of  colleges  indicate  anything  as  to  its  appUcation  to  a 
high  school.  The  question  to  ask  when  one  hears  the  argument 
from  example  advanced  is  whether  the  circumstances  are  similar 
enough  to  warrant  a  reasonable  inference. 

The  argument  from  analogy  is  a  comparison  of  things  in 
two  separate  spheres,  between  which  there  is  alleged  to  be  a 
sufficient  hkeness  to  afford  a  measure  of  proof.  It  thus  differs 
from  the  argument  from  example,  which  compares  things  in 
the  same  sphere.  A  specious  use  of  the  argument  from  analogy 
is  seen  in  the  following  advertisement  of  artificial  rubies.  Its 
force  is  lessened  when  we  remember  that  ice  is  bought  for  use, 
whereas  rubies  are  bought  by  many  people  less  for  their  inherent 
beauty  than  for  their  scarcity  value. 


ARGUMENTATION  249 

"Imitation   Ice" 

'"You  do  not  reject  a  piece  of  ice  frozen  by  a  scientific  process  for  one 
made  by  ordinary  cold  weather.  Both  are  real  ice,  with  all  the  properties 
of  ice. 

"So  with  a  ruby.  Small  ruby  chips  are  melted  in  an  electric  furnace  at  a 
temperature  of  6000  degrees,  and  fused  into  one  real  ruby,  cut  in  the  ordinary 
way,  which  when  set  has  all  the  brilliancy  of  the  natural  gem  —  it  is  a  'real 
ruby.'  Let  us  show  you  some  of  these  'synthetic'  stones  —  good  sized  'real 
rubies,'  $5  to  $15." 

The  fallacy  of  objections  consists  in  multiplying  trivial  points 
in  opposition  to  a  proposed  policy  without  giving  substantial 
proof,  and  without  offering  any  alternative  remedy  for  conditions 
admitted  to  exist.  This  is  common  in  all  sorts  of  argument, 
student  debates  as  well  as  the  controversies  of  politics  and  social 
reform.  Even  though  many  of  the  objections  cannot  be  directly 
answered,  this  sort  of  attack  may  properly  be  met  by  pressing  the 
main  issues,  insisting  on  the  points  admitted,  and  asking  "What 
do  you  propose  to  do  about  it?" 

Commonest  of  all,  however,  in  student  arguments  are  two 
errors  already  named:  (i)  assertion  without  proof;  (2)  testi- 
mony taken  from  unknown,  ill-qualified,  or  prejudiced  writers. 
A  vigilant  listener,  while  on  the  lookout  for  unsound  reasoning, 
needs  to  be  even  more  alert  to  these  forms  of  invalid  argument. 
"Is  that  really  a  fact?"  is  an  even  more  important  question 
than  "Is  that  good  reasoning?"  Every  student  needs  to  ask 
both  these  questions  of  himseK  in  preparing  his  own  argument, 
as  well  as  to  bear  them  in  mind  while  he  listens  to  an  opponent 
or  reads  a  written  or  printed  argument. 

In  concluding  this  chapter  a  protest  may  be  uttered  against 
all  forms  of  insincerity  and  deception  in  college  arguments, 
written  or  spoken.  So  far  as  possible,  men  ought  always  to  argue 
on  the  side  where  they  really  stand.  Questions  for  debate  in 
which  the  sides  are  chosen  by  lot  should  be  so  evenly  balanced 
that  a  careful  student  can  find  much  to  say  on  either  side  without 


250  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

sacrificing  his  self-respect.  There  is  nothing  about  this  branch 
of  rhetoric  that  exempts  it  from  the  principles  of  candor  and 
fair  play  that  prevail  among  gentlemen.  To  make  the  worse 
appear  the  better  reason  is  not  argument  but  sophistry. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  40.  Study  sections  149-153.  Choose  a  subject  from  the  list 
of  twenty-five  in  section  152,  and  write  out  five  questions  based  upon  it, 
three  being  questions  purely  of  fact  and  two  of  opinion.  All  questions 
should  be  specific,  not  vague;  and  all  should  be  two-sided  —  not  questions 
to  which  the  answer  is  obviously  either  yes  or  no.  For  example,  such 
questions  as  the  following  would  be  unsuitable:  "Are  automobile  laws 
adequately  enforced  in  this  state?"  "Do  billboards  disfigure  scenery?" 
The  answer  to  the  first  is  obviously  in  the  negative;  to  the  second,  in  the 
affirmative.  After  writing  out  five  questions,  select  that  one  which  you 
regard  as  the  best  for  discussion,  and  define  any  terms  that  need  definition. 

Assignment  4.1.  Study  section  154.  Write  at  the  head  of  a  sheet  the 
question  you  have  chosen  for  analysis.  Below  it  write  in  parallel  columns 
a  comparison  of  the  contentions  on  the  two  sides  of  the  question.  At  least 
ten  contentions  should  be  listed  on  each  side,  none  of  which  are  mere  para- 
phrases of  others.  Bring  this  statement  of  contentions  to  class,  but  retain 
it  after  class  for  use  in  the  next  assignment. 

Assignment  42.  Study  sections  155-158.  Using  the  statement  of  con- 
tentions already  prepared,  mark  all  irrelevant  points,  points  of  agreement, 
and  points  waived  (if  any),  and  from  the  remaining  contentions  determine 
and  write  out  the  issues.  The  complete  analysis  (assignments  41  and  42, 
with  definition  of  terms)  is  to  be  handed  in. 

Assignment  43.  Read  section  159.  Frame  a  question  based  on  one  of 
the  twenty-five  subjects  listed  in  this  section,  and  write  a  complete  analysis, 
embracing  all  the  seven  points  named,  to  be  handed  in. 

Assignment  44.  Study  sections  160-165.  Choose  one  of  the  two  ques- 
tions already  analyzed,  whichever  you  prefer  to  follow  up  and  use  as  the 
basis  of  a  complete  brief.  Consider,  with  reference  to  this  question,  what 
questions  of  fact  will  need  to  be  answered  in  order  to  meet  the  issues.  Write 
out  at  least  ten  such  questions  of  fact,  and  place  opposite  each  the  source 
from  which  the  best  evidence  is  to  be  sought. 

Assignment  45.  Study  sections  166  and  167.  Write  out  (in  the  form  of 
compound  sentences  with  the  clauses  joined  by  for)  five  propositions  which 


ARGUMENTATION  251 

you  expect  to  use  as  arguments  in  your  proof.  Expand  each  of  these  into  a 
complete  syllogism  by  supplying  the  unexpressed  major  premise. 

Assignment  46.  Study  sections  168-173.  Begin  the  writing  of  a  com- 
plete brief  on  your  subject.  (The  introduction  is  already  complete,  except 
for  a  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  question.) 

Assignment  47.     Study  section  174.     Continue  work,  on  the  brief. 

Assignment  48.     Complete  and  copy  the  brief,  to  be  handed  in. 


CHAPTER  XII 
WORDS 

175.  The  relation  of  structure  to  style.  Of  the  expression  of 
thought  in  language  we  have  hitherto  considered  chiefly  but  one 
element, —  structure.  Structure  means  building.  We  mean  by 
it  the  frame  of  the  house,  the  sills  and  joists  and  studs  and  plates 
and  rafters,  the  struts  and  ties  and  braces,  but  not  the  siding  or 
the  clapboards  or  the  shingles  or  the  lath  and  plaster.  Or  struc- 
ture may  be  compared  to  the  skeleton  with  its  attached  carti- 
lages and  tendons,  but  without  the  inclosing  tissues  that  de- 
pend upon  it  for  support.  By  structure  in  rhetoric  we  mean 
the  organization  of  thought;  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
ideas  in  order  to  put  things  where  they  belong. 

This  process  of  planning  the  structure  of  a  composition,  to 
which  so  much  of  our  attention  has  hitherto  been  given,  is 
really  an  affair  wholly  of  the  mind,  not  of  the  tongue  or  pen; 
that  is,  it  is  determined  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
thinking  we  do  before  we  begin  to  speak  or  to  write.  Its  ex- 
pression is  the  outline,  or,  in  argumentation,  the  brief.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  assignments,  all  the  emphasis  has  been  laid  on 
structure.  The  main  aim  has  been  clearness.  Our  one  chief 
concern  was  to  use  words  so  precise,  sentences  so  compact, 
paragraphs  so  logically  constructed  and  connected,  that  our 
thought  could  be  understood;  or  rather,  that  it  could  not  be  mis- 
understood. The  acme  of  this  sort  of  writing  is  the  familiar 
sign: 

RAILWAY   CROSSING 

STOP!   LOOK!   LISTEN! 
252 


WORDS  253 

To  make  language  unmistakably  clear  is  not  so  easy  as  it  seems. 
People  who  write  their  own  wills,  legislators  who  try  to  evade 
constitutions,  and  treaty-makers  who  try  to  anticipate  future 
contingencies,  often  fail  even  here.  But  there  is  another  ele- 
ment in  composition  which  is  equally  important  and  much  more 
difficult, —  style. 

Style  is  more  than  Dean  Swift's  "the  proper  words  in  the 
proper  place."  It  is  our  way  of  saying  things.  Ten  men 
writing  from  the  same  outline  will  have  identical  structure, 
but  they  will  all  have  different  styles;  just  as  ten  artists  painting 
the  same  landscape,  or  portraits  of  the  same  person,  will  all 
produce  different  pictures.  Ten  cameras  will  give  landscapes 
or  portraits  differing  only  in  mechanical  details;  ten  brushes  or 
pencils  will  make  pictures  different  in  spirit,  temper,  interpreta- 
tion.    Every  artist  has  his  style.     "The  style  is  the  man." 

Now  it  is  evident  that  structure  is  a  more  or  less  mechanical 
thing  that  can  be  mastered  by  any  intelligent  person.  By  such 
methods  of  analysis  and  arrangement  of  material  as  were  ex- 
plained in  Chapters  II  and  IV,  any  student  can  learn  to  make 
a  good  outline.  Most  students  can,  if  they  revise  often  enough, 
make  an  outline  that  is  practically  perfect.  But  style  is  no 
such  simple  matter.  There  is  no  open  or  secret  method  of  ac- 
quiring it  in  so  many  lessons.  Good  style  is  the  result  of  much 
reading,  much  writing,  much  rewriting,  much  thought.  Style 
is  a  matter  of  degree;  everybody  has  some  style;  only  the 
great  masters  can  properly  be  said  to  have  perfect  styles. 
When  we  say  of  a  poor  writer,  "He  has  no  style,"  we  do  not 
mean  just  what  we  say.  It  would  be  like  saying  that  a  man 
has  no  way  of  walking,  no  manner  of  dress,  no  fashion  of  eat- 
ing his  dinner.  We  really  mean  that  he  has  a  bad  style,  or 
fragments  of  many  bad  styles,  with  neither  beauty  nor  even  an 
original  kind  of  ugliness.  When  we  say,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  a  v/riter  has  a  fine  style,  we  may  mean  the  elaborate  prose 
rhythms  of  Ruskin,  or  the  crystal  simplicity  of  Newman.     We 


254  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

may  mean  a  vivid,  pictorial  kind  of  scientific  style  like  Profes- 
sor James's,  or  a  plain  kind  like  Huxley's.  In  every  case  we 
mean  that  the  man  has  a  way  of  saying  things  which  marks 
him  off  from  other  men,  and  is  in  itself  admirable.  His  style 
is  good,  and  it  is  his.  It  has  fitness  for  the  writer,  fitness  for 
the  reader,  and  fitness  for  the  thought.  He  has  made  it,  and 
it  has  made  him. 

176.  The  means  of  winning  interest.  Style  depends  on 
various  factors.  One  element  in  it  is  euphony;  another  is 
vividness;  another  is  variety.  Sentences  and  words  must 
sound  well,  must  be  full  of  pictures,  must  rest  and  refresh 
the  ear  by  contrast.  The  chief  aim  of  this  euphony,  vividness, 
and  variety  is  not  clearness;  it  is  interest.  We  aim  now  not 
merely  to  be  understood,  but  to  be  liked.  We  desire  not 
only  that  men  shall  grasp  our  meaning  if  they  care  to  listen, 
but  also  that  they  shall  be  made  to  care.  The  ambition  of 
the  man  who  wrote  the  railway  sign  is  satisfied  if  he  has  made 
sure  that  "he  who  runs  may  read."  If  he  can  keep  absent- 
minded  drivers  and  "joy-riders"  off  the  tracks  when  trains 
are  due,  he  has  earned  his  pay.  But  the  story-writer,  the 
orator,  the  familiar  essayist,  the  dramatist,  has  a  harder  task. 
"He  Cometh  unto  you  with  a  tale  which  holdeth  children  from 
play  and  old  men  from  the  chimney  corner,"  says  Sir  Philip 
Sidney.  He  must  please  the  children  better  than  their  play, 
and  warm  the  old  men's  hearts  like  a  Christmas  fire.  It  may 
be  his  task  to  charm  timid  innocence  into  a  daring  resolve,  or 
to  kindle  smoldering  passion  into  a  destroying  flame.  He 
may  use  his  style  to  tell  his  own  secrets,  or  to  force  other  men 
to  confess  theirs.  His  is  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  the 
secret  of  sympathy,  the  key  to  the  will:  interest.  If  he 
would  command,  he  must  serve.  If  he  would  lead,  he  must 
follow.  He  that  writes  practices  an  art;  and  the  aim  of  all 
art  is,  in  the  noblest  sense,  to  please. 

177.  Good  style  in  the  general  sense.     The  pleasure  or 


WORDS  255 

intetest  which  great  literature  arouses  is  in  large  part  the 
result  of  the  great  ideas  out  of  which  it  grows.  Concerning 
those  sources  of  beauty  in  books  which  arise  from  their  con- 
tents, the  student  will  be  constantly  learning  in  his  study  of 
literature.  The  form  cannot  be  divorced  from  the  content,  the 
body  from  the  spirit.  Style  for  style's  sake  is  an  abomination. 
Yet  if  a  student  who  never  has  great  ideas,  and  never  expects 
to  have  any,  is  to  attempt  to  better  his  own  style,  he  can  do  it 
in  no  other  way  than  to  put  into  practice  in  writing  what  he 
observes  in  reading.  For  style  is  not  only  individual  but 
social.  There  is  the  individual  style,  and  there  is  the  general 
style;  just  as  there  is  a  German  script,  which  every  German 
writes  with  his  own  personal  peculiarities.  Each  language 
has  a  style  of  its  own.  There  is  the  French  style,  the  German, 
the  Hebrew.  Each  age  has  its  style,  its  fashions  in  sentence- 
form  and  vocabulary.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  student 
must  to  some  extent  model  his  style  on  the  best  general  style 
of  his  age  and  country,  while  he  is  at  the  same  time  trying  to 
develop  individual  expression. 

An  art  student  draws  casts  a  long  time  before  he  is  admitted 
to  the  life  class;  and  he  must  show  proficiency  in  figure  drawing 
before  he  can  do  much  with  compositions  involving  figures. 
Children  learning  to  write  follow  the  copy  with  scrupulous 
care  in  the  effort  to  imitate  the  standard;  only  when  they  are 
grown  is  it  desirable  that  they  should  allow  their  handwriting 
to  develop  a  certain  freedom  and  variation  from  the  pattern. 
In  composition  work  the  two  sorts  of  training  go  on  side  by 
side.  The  student  begins  by  learning  those  things  which  are 
common  to  all  good  writers  and  all  good  styles;  but  he  con-  ■ 
tinues,  if  he  has  the  natural  bent  and  the  industry  to  continue, 
by  developing  those  peculiar  powers  of  his  own  which  gradually 
emerge.  This  book  is  devoted  exclusively  to  the  principles  of 
composition  which  are  common  to  all  educated  writers,  omit- 


2S6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

ting  all  that  belongs  merely  to  the  individual  cultivation  of 
special  powers,  proper  to  elective  work  in  composition. 

178.  Style  largely  a  matter  of  specific  words.  We  shall 
from  this  point  think  of  writing  not  merely  as  the  communica- 
tion of  thought,  but  also  as  the  communication  of  feeling. 
The  desire  to  be  interesting  will  be  added  to  the  desire  to  be 
clear.  If  we  pause  to  consider  wherein  the  attempt  to  be 
interesting  differs  from  the  attempt  to  be  clear,  it  becomes 
evident  that  the  difference  is  largely  a  matter  of  choosing  words. 
A  friendly  letter  describing  an  ordinary  journey  may  be,  and 
often  is,  extremely  dull.  In  order  to  be  interesting,  it  must 
be  a  series  of  pictures.  The  words  must  be  specific  words:  verbs 
that  have  a  jingle,  or  a  boom,  or  a  rattle,  or  a  glide  in  them; 
nouns  that  call  to  the  reader's  mind  a  crag,  or  a  canon,  or  a  glen, 
or  a  lane  that  he  has  somewhere  seen;  adjectives  that  recall  the 
odor  of  white  violets,  the  smell  of  hayfields  in  August,  the 
delicate  green  of  the  sky  behind  certain  tints  of  rose  in  sunset 
clouds.  Likewise  in  conversation,  the  racy  talk  is  the  talk 
that  has  snap  in  it;  short  words,  but  not  too  many  of  them; 
slang  where  it  belongs,  Shaksperean  phrases  that  are  house- 
hold words;  everything  specific,  apt,  pat. 

179.  The  life-history  of  words.  To  a  study  of  words,  there- 
fore, every  student  of  style  must  sooner  or  later  come.  He  must 
know  not  only  what  they  mean,  but  what  they  suggest;  some- 
thing of  their  heredity  and  environment,  as  determining  their 
manners  and  morals.  For  words  are  living  things.  They  are 
born,  sometimes  in  palaces  and  sometimes  in  stables.  They 
go  through  the  contagious  diseases  of  infancy,  and  some  few 
of  them  grow  up.  They  are  married,  and  have  children. 
They  flourish  a  while,  and  earn  a  Uving  in  the  workaday  world. 
Then  often  they  grow  weary  and  die,  or  wicked  and  are  de- 
spised, or  weak  and  are  cast  aside.  One  word  is  a  reformed 
burglar,  another  is  a  degenerate  saint.  "Language  is  fossil 
poetry,"    says    Emerson.     Others    have    compared    it,    more 


WORDS  257 

prosaically,  to  coins  that  come  fresh  from  the  mint,  bright  and 
sharp,  passing  current  among  men  in  bargains  good  and  bad 
until  they  are  worn  smooth,  and  Hkely  then  to  be  retired  or 
melted  up.  However  we  may  phrase  it,  the  fact  is  that  there 
are  words  that  are  good  for  no  purpose  at  all,  because  they  are 
vulgar,  or  obsolete,  or  exhausted  of  meaning;  and  words  that 
are  good  for  some  things  but  not  for  others.  A  study  of  good 
usage  helps  us  to  reject  words  that  ought  not  to  be  used  at  all; 
a  study  of  etymology  and  synonyms  helps  us  to  choose  the 
particular  words  fittest  to  convey  the  precise  thought  and 
feeling  which  we  desire  to  express. 

180.  Good  usage.  It  is  customary  in  textbooks  of  rhetoric  to 
say  that  the  tests  of  good  usage  in  words  are  those  of  present, 
national,  and  reputable  use.  Present  use  excludes  archaic 
words,  on  the  one  hand,  which  no  normal  student  ever  uses 
except  in  fun;  and  new,  unaccepted  words,  on  the  other  hand. 
National  use  excludes  local  or  provincial  dialect  within  one's 
own  country,  and  foreign  words  for  which  there  is  an  English 
equivalent.  This  again  is  not  a  danger  point  with  young 
writers.  Reputable  use,  however,  is  a  test  which  college 
students  need  constantly  to  apply  to  their  vocabulary.  Many 
words  appear  in  an  unabridged  dictionary  which  are  labeled 
"colloquial"  or  "vulgar."  They  form  part  of  the  language, 
but  not  of  the  language  of  literature.  The  dictionaries  sooner 
or  later  have  to  admit  such  verbs  as  to  enthuse  and  to  suicide 
and  to  suspicion,  though  under  protest.  Much  slang,  not  all, 
is  disreputable.  The  usage  of  the  newspapers  is  in  no  way  a 
guide  to  the  standing  of  a  word.  Newspaper  men  are  fond  of 
short  words  on  account  of  the  limitations  of  headlines.  They 
have  introduced  a  new  noun,  probe,  meaning  originally  a  sur- 
geon's instrument  for  exploring  a  wound,  but  meaning  now  an 
investigation  of  alleged  abuses  by  a  legislative  committee  or 
other  non-judicial  body.  From  the  headlines  it  has  made  its 
way  into  the  text,  and  is  now  recognized  newspaper  English 


258  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

for  "investigation."  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  a  reputable  word. 
Some  day  it  may  be;  many  words  which  began  as  slang  are 
now  in  irreproachable  standing.  It  would  be  fooUsh  to  say  that 
the  verbs  enthuse  and  suicide  may  not  in  half  a  century  be  as 
well  accepted  as  the  nouns  mob  and  cab,  which  are  eighteenth 
century  slang. 

The  test  of  good  usage  is  the  English  of  the  best  writers  and 
speakers:  this,  and  not  the  more  or  less  prejudiced  opinions 
of  textbook  writers  and  professors  is  what  ultimately  decides  a 
doubtful  case.  But  how  shall  we  determine  what  is  actually 
the  usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers? 

The  only  convenient  way  to  ascertain  the  standing  of  any 
particular  word  is  to  consult  the  latest  and  best  dictionaries. 
The  American  dictionaries,  such  as  the  New  International 
Dictionary  and  the  New  Standard  Dictionary,  are  to  be  preferred 
for  this  purpose  to  English  works  which  label  as  U.S.  many  well 
established  words  and  meanings.  In  consulting  an  unabridged 
dictionary  for  usage  one  should  read  the  illustrative  examples 
quoted  from  various  authors,  and  should  note  whether  the 
writers  are  such  as  would  be  accounted  standard.  It  is  not 
enough  that  somebody  at  some  time  has  used  a  word  in  a  certain 
sense.     The  question  is.  Is  it  now  so  used  by  people  who  know? 

181.  Etymology.  By  the  test  of  good  usage  many  words  are 
excluded  from  our  vocabulary  entirely.  To  learn  accurately  the 
meaning  of  the  words  that  pass  this  test  is  the  next  step.  There 
are  several  means  of  improving  one's  knowledge  of  words, 
among  which  the  study  of  their  origin  and  history  is  important. 
A  student  does  not  need  to  know  a  great  deal  of  Latin  and 
French  to  profit  largely  by  a  little  attention  to  etymology  in  his 
use  of  the  dictionary.  No  attempt  is  made  in  the  following 
pages  to  outline  the  history  of  the  EngUsh  language,  however 
briefly,  or  to  state  the  laws  governing  the  composition  of  words. 
Time  is  lacking  in  the  ordinary  freshman  course  in  rhetoric  for 
any  real  study  of  etymology,  however  elementary.     By  means  of 


WORDS  259 

the  examples  and  suggested  exercises  each  student  will  be  led 
to  see  for  himself  how  interesting  and  how  important  is  the 
study  of  word  history.  The  development  of  a  habitual  curiosity 
regarding  words  is  the  end  to  be  aimed  at.  For  as  a  student's 
mind  grows,  and  as  he  adds  to  the  store  of  information  with 
which  it  is  furnished,  he  will  meet  many  new  words  which 
sooner  or  later  he  must  use.  To  scan  these  intelligently  is  bet- 
ter than  to  content  himself  with  a  rough  approximation  to 
their  meaning.  The  facts  of  language  stated  in  the  following 
pages  are  intended  to  show  how  and  why  word-study  is  to  be 
pursued. 

182.  English  a  Germanic  language.  Our  vocabulary  is  made 
up  of  three  principal  elements,  Old  English  (Anglo-Saxon), 
French,  and  Latin.  Since  the  French  words  are  ordinarily  de- 
rived from  the  Latin,  the  three  elements  may  be  considered  as 
two  for  elementary  purposes;  though,  both  from  the  point  of 
view  of  history  and  from  that  of  present  sound  and  spelling,  the 
French  and  the  Latin  words  can  often  be  clearly  distinguished. 
Of  these  two  principal  strains  in  the  language,  the  Old  English 
and  the  Latin-French,  the  one  is  Germanic,  the  other  Italic. 
Notwithstanding  its  extensive  borrowing  from  French  and  Latin, 
the  language  itself,  as  is  shown  by  its  grammar,  is  plainly  a 
Germanic  tongue. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  languages  spoken  in 
the  north  and  in  the  south  of  Europe  —  the  Germanic  branch, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  which  belong  German,  Dutch,  Danish, 
Norwegian,  and  Swedish;  and  the  Italic,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
which  belong  Latin  and  all  the  Romance  languages  derived  from 
it.  Yet  both  belong  to  the  Indo-European  family,  and  have 
relations  which  bind  them  together  with  the  Hellenic,  the  Celtic, 
and  other  European  languages,  and  with  various  languages 
of  Asia.  The  ties  which  connect  English  with  so  remote  a 
language  as  Russian  or  Old  Irish  or  Sanskrit  are  far  closer  then 
the  very  slight  relations  it  sustains  to  languages  of  other  fami- 


26o  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

lies,  such  as  the  Hebrew,  the  Arabic,  the  Chinese,  the  Malay, 
the  North  American  Indian.  For  while  English  has  borrowed 
words  from  all  these  languages,  it  has  no  kinship  whatever  with 
them;  whereas  it  is  related  by  collateral  though  remote  lines  to 
the  ancient  languages  of  India,  to  the  speech  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  Celts,  to  the  languages  of  the  Slavic  races,  and  to 
most  of  the  other  tongues  of  Europe. 

183.  Words  enter  the  language  by  descent,  borrowing,  or 
invention.  We  must  distinguish  three  distinct  kinds  of  origin 
for  modern  English  words : 

(i)  Direct  descent,  as  in  the  case  of  house,  home,  from  the 
Old  English  hus,  ham. 

(2)  Borrowing  from  other  languages,  as  in  the  case  of 
receive,  borrowed  directly  from  French  recevoir,  and  indirectly 
from  Latin  recipio,  which  gives  us  directly  recipient.  Many 
Greek  words  came  into  EngUsh  through  their  Latinized  forms, 
such  as  martyr,  from  Latin  martyrus,  a  martyr,  Greek  marturos, 
a  witness.  Indirect  borrowing  is  also  seen  in  the  case  of  EngHsh 
words  derived  through  Old  English  forms  from  the  Latin,  such 
as  street.  Old  English  straet,  from  Latin  strata  {via),  a  paved  road. 
English  borrows  freely  from  the  languages  of  all  quarters  of  the 
globe,  including  many  with  which  it  has  no  linguistic  relation- 
ship whatever.  Such  words  as  boomerang  (Australian),  toma- 
hawk (Indian),  igloo  (Eskimo),  algebra  (Arabic),  are  examples  of 
this  tendency. 

(3)  Invention,  as  in  the  case  of  such  words  as  gas  and  kodak. 
Invented  words  are  not  very  numerous.  They  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  new  compounds  like  automobile,  of  which  the 
parts  are  borrowed  from  Greek  and  Latin. 

It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  suppose  that  EngHsh  home  is  de- 
rived from  German  heim,  or  English  another  from  German 
mutter  or  Latin  mater.  These  are  examples  of  cognate  words, 
words  which  are  first  or  second  cousins.  Dictionary  etymolo- 
gies are  apt  to  be  confusing  in  this  matter,  because  they  give 


WORDS  261 

first  the  word  from  which  direct  descent  is  to  be  traced,  and 
then  a  number  of  cognate  words  in  the  collateral  languages. 
All  words  but  the  first,  therefore,  are  to  be  regarded  not  as 
indicating  the  origin  of  the  EngUsh  word,  but  as  showing  how 
the  same  root  assumes  various  forms  in  other  languages  of  the 
same  branch  or  family. 

What  difference  does  it  make  from  what  language  a  word 
has  come  to  us,  or  in  what  way  it  has  come,  whether  by  direct 
descent,  indirect  descent,  or  borrowing?  What  do  we  care 
about  the  cognates,  in  English  or  in  other  languages,  if  they 
mean  different  things?  These  are  fair  questions.  They  may 
be  best  answered  by  examples. 

184.  The  subtle  influence  of  derivation  on  words.  Suppose 
in  writing  a  political  editorial  one  desires  to  refer  to  the  illegiti- 
mate appropriation  of  public  money  by  a  corrupt  governor  or 
legislature.  He  may  refer  to  a  raid  on  the  treasury.  This  is  a 
fairly  mild  word  —  for  a  politician.  A  little  later,  when  he  gets 
excited,  he  may  speak  of  booty  or  spoils.  But  he  will  need  to 
be  very  reckless  indeed,  very  careless  of  libel  suits  and  other 
unpleasant  consequences,  before  he  will  charge  his  opponents 
with  looting  or  robbing  the  treasury.  Is  there  any  real  difference 
among  these  words?  They  are  called  synonyms,  which  means 
that  their  meaning  is  not  identical  but  similar.  Other  synonyms 
belong  to  the  same  group.  A  fairly  comprehensive  list  would  be 
as  follows,  including  verbs  and  nouns :  raid,  rob,  loot,  pillage,  rifle, 
sack,  ransack,  plunder,  ravage,  booty,  spoils,  depredation. 

185.  The  history  of  robbery  traced  in  words.  These  words 
are  all  alike  in  that  they  imply  open  violence  rather  than 
secret  plots.  Such  words  as  steal,  stealth,  thief,  burglar,  larceny, 
embezzler,  do  not  fit  at  all.  This  politician  that  we  are  after 
did  not  sneak  in  and  make  off  with  a  few  valuables  in  a  furtive 
and  surreptitious  manner.  What  we  want  is  a  word  that  will 
picture  an  unscrupulous  person  laying  violent  hands  upon  the 
property  of  another.     The  twelve  words  in  the  Ust  all  convey 


262  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

that  idea.  How  do  they  differ?  A  search  of  the  dictionary 
reveals  interesting  facts.  Indeed  it  carries  us  back  to  the  old, 
lawless  times  of  border  raids  on  the  Saxon  frontiers,  when 
bands  of  armed  men  rode  suddenly  down  upon  a  farm  or  a 
hamlet,  drove  away  the  cattle,  fired  the  houses,  and  as  often 
as  not  killed  the  inhabitants.  All  the  terror  of  the  vikings  is 
in  these  words;  all  the  horror  of  the  battlefield  where  the  victois 
stripped  the  bodies  of  the  slain;  all  the  death  and  ruin  of  a 
captured  city  invaded  by  wild,  drunken  soldiers  full  of  lust  and 
greed. 

Raid  is  a  Saxon  word  cognate  with  ride  and  road.  The 
picture  is  that  of  a  band  of  horsemen  sweeping  down  upon  a 
village.  Another  cognate  word  in  the  same  series  is  ready. 
One  who  is  ready  is  originally  one  who  is  booted  and  spurred 
for  a  raid,  or  at  least  for  a  ride.  Rob  and  spoil  and  pillage 
are  exact  synonyms,  all  from  Old  French,  the  first  going  back 
to  an  Old  High  German  word,  and  the  other  two  to  Latin.  All 
three  mean  to  strip  off  the  robe  or  garment  of  a  fallen  warrior. 
The  other  eight  words  refer  not  to  robbing  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  and  wounded  on  the  battlefield,  but  to  the  plundering  of 
houses  and  towns  which  follows  victory.  Rifle  and  ransack 
are  words  of  the  old  Norse  sea  kings,  who  ran  their  ships  into 
the  coves  along  the  eastern  shores  of  England,  landed  in  the 
night,  and  robbed  and  burned  the  towns.  Rifle  means  to 
seize  or  snatch,  ransack  to  search  a  house  from  top  to  bottom. 
Here,  then,  is  a  cruel  echo  from  the  rocky  fjords  of  Norway 
and  the  barren  plains  of  Iceland,  ringing  still  in  our  peaceful 
English  speech.  Booty  is  another  Scandinavian  word.  The 
idea  of  sharing,  dividing  the  spoils,  is  dominant  here.  Ravage 
is  French,  and  means  to  seize,  from  Latin  rapio.  The  idea  of 
depredation  is  similar,  taking  booty  away  from  its  owner. 
Loot  is  a  word  recently  borrowed  from  the  Hindustani,  probably 
through  the  medium  of  the  British  army  in  India.  In  its 
native  land  it  is  a  very  ancient  word  with  corresponding  forms 


WORDS  263 

in  the  Sanskrit,  going  back  to  the  root  RUP,  meaning  to  break, 
from  which  the  Teutonic  word  rob  is  also  derived.  Plunder 
is  a  German  word,  and  means  to  carry  off  the  very  rags  and 
rubbish  found  in  the  houses  of  the  victims.  Two  other  words 
might  be  added  to  the  Hst:  harry,  which  means  to  lay  waste 
with  an  army,  and  havoc,  now  used  in  a  weak  sense,  but  once 
the  signal  to  an  army  to  begin  looting. 

Cry  havoc,  and  let  slip  the  dogs  of  war. 

Thus  in  these  seemingly  harmless  synonyms  we  read  the  his- 
tory of  human  wolves  and  jackals  in  all  ages.  Men,  like  the 
vultures,  have  stripped  the  bleaching  bodies  of  the  dead. 
Men,  like  the  sea  wolves  of  the  viking  age,  have  snatched 
jewels  from  the  hands  and  throats  of  screaming  women,  torn 
iron-bound  treasure  chests  from  the  clutch  of  the  dying,  pulled 
houses  into  ruins  in  their  search  for  hidden  gold.  All  the  human 
misery  and  blood  by  which  the  golden  hoards  of  Danish  pirates 
were  amassed  are  here  indelibly  written. 

But  the  most  interesting  word  of  all  is  sack.  In  its  mean- 
ing of  plunder  it  is  from  the  French,  but  the  French  verb  is 
from  the  noun  sac,  a  bag,  which  goes  back  to  the  dim  ages  of 
the  past.  We  trace  it  back  through  the  Latin  to  the  Greek, 
through  the  Greek  to  the  Hebrew,  through  the  Hebrew  perhaps 
to  the  Egyptian.  Sackcloth  is  coarse  cloth  of  the  sort  from 
which  bags  were  made,  worn  as  a  symbol  of  mourning.  Thus, 
while  ransack  carries  us  back  to  the  Danes,  rob  to  the  wild 
Germanic  tribes  who  swept  over  France  in  the  dark  ages, 
spoils  to  the  Roman  legions,  loot  to  the  hordes  of  ancient  India, 
this  word  sack  brings  us  into  the  lands  of  mystery  and  silence, 
the  lands  of  Jacob  and  Joseph,  the  age  of  the  pyramids.  And 
yet  some  people  find  the  dictionary  dull  reading. 

186.  The  art  of  writing  traced  in  words.  Perhaps  this  last 
word  list  was  exceptional;  perhaps  most  words  are  really  unin- 
teresting.    Surely  in  a  spelling  book  or  a  grammar  one  could 


264  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

find  no  verbal  romances.  Let  us  see.  What  are  some  of  the 
commonest  words  that  have  to  do  with  written  language?  We 
have  the  nouns  book,  library,  Bible,  representing  respectively 
the  Teutonic,  Latin,  and  Greek  words  for  book.  What  do  they 
mean?  Book  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the 
beech  tree,  though  this  derivation  is  now  doubted;  library  is 
from  a  Latin  word  that  means  the  bark  of  a  tree,  Bible  is  from 
a  Greek  word  that  means  the  Egyptian  papyrus  plant.  Paper 
is  from  the  word  papyrus  itself,  which  is  probably  of  Egyptian 
origin.  Here  we  have  the  primitive  writing  materials  of  the 
ancients:  the  bark  of  trees,  and  the  thin  layers  stripped  from 
the  stem  of  Nile  rushes.  But  what  about  parchmentf  It 
comes,  through  French  and  Latin,  from  the  Greek  city  of  Per- 
gamum  in  Asia  Minor.  And  what  has  Pergamum  to  do  with 
sheepskin?  Simply  this,  that  the  art  of  preparing  sheepskin 
for  writing  was  improved  and  revived  by  Eumenes  II,  king  of 
Pergamum,  about  160  B.C.  The  reason  he  resorted  to  parch- 
ment was  that  the  Ptolemies,  who  ruled  Egypt  at  that  time, 
opposed  his  plan  of  estabhshing  a  public  library  at  Pergamum 
by  cutting  oJEf  the  supply  of  papyrus.  Not  to  be  thwarted  in 
that  fashion,  the  canny  monarch  soon  developed  a  home  industry 
that  made  the  name  of  his  capital  immortal.  Parchment  was 
later  superseded  by  vellum,  which  is  simply  calfskin,  from  the 
same  Latin  word  that  gives  us  veal.  A  volume  means  a  roll 
of  parchment  or  vellum ;  and  a  code  is  a  number  of  leaves  stitched 
together  at  one  edge  like  our  books  (originally  two  or  more 
wooden  tablets  covered  with  wax  and  joined  by  rings  —  the 
"loose-leaf  notebook"  of  Roman  times). 

We  have  other  commonplace  words  that  have  to  do  with 
written  language,  such  as  pen,  style;  graphic,  scribe,  write; 
letter,  rune,  alphabet.  The  pen  and  the  style  (it  should  be 
stile)  are  respectively  the  goose  quill  of  the  middle  ages  and 
early  modern  times  (Latin  penna,  feather),  and  the  pointed  stick 
of  wood  or  ivory  {stilus)  with  which  the  Romans  scratched  upon 


WORDS  265 

their  wax-covered  tablets.  The  commonest  writing  instrument 
used  on  papyrus  and  parchment  was  the  reed  pen,  Latin  calamus, 
which  is  not  represented  in  English.  The  words  write  (Old 
English),  scribe  (Latin),  and  graph  (Greek,  e.g.,  telegraph),  all 
mean  to  cut,  to  engrave;  belonging  therefore  not  to  the  use  of  the 
reed  or  the  quill  with  ink,  but  to  the  use  of  the  stylus  on  wax,  or 
the  chisel  on  wood,  stone,  or  metal.  Letter,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
from  a  Latin  word  that  means  to  spread,  to  smear  a  soft  sub- 
stance such  as  ink,  using  a  reed  pen  on  papyrus  or  parchment. 

The  old  Teutonic  word  rune  has  more  "fossil  poetry"  in  it 
than  any  of  these  others.  It  is  found  not  only  in  Old  English 
but  in  Icelandic,  Old  High  German,  and  Gothic,  and  in  all  it 
means  either  a  letter  or  a  secret,  a  mystery,  from  a  word  that 
means  to  whisper.  The  old  Norse  runes,  letters  forming  an 
alphabet  made  up  entirely  of  straight  lines  and  angles,  easily 
carved  on  trees  and  rocks,  were  a  wonderful  thing  in  the  lands 
of  the  north.  They  had  magic  in  them.  To  talk  was  a  simple 
thing;  but  to  scratch  signs  of  talk  on  a  rock,  so  that  other  men 
should  look  at  those  scratches,  and  know  what  they  had  not 
known  before  —  this  was  a  mystery,  a  secret,  a  thing  to  whisper 
about,  a  rune. 

As  for  the  alphabet,  the  word  is  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew  —  the  ■ 
aleph,  beth  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  And  as  these  Hebrew  words 
mean  respectively  an  ox  and  a  house,  we  are  carried  back  at 
once  to  the  origin  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  and  from  that  to 
the  Egyptian  picture-writing  of  the  hieroglyphic  monuments. 
Apparently  almost  any  common  word  takes  us  back  to  Ger- 
many in  Caesar's  time,  or  Egypt  in  the  age  of  the  Pharaohs,  or 
India  and  Central  Asia  long  before  there  were  any  Pharaohs  at 
all. 

187.  The  curious  relationships  of  words  revealed  by  etymol- 
ogy. There  is  another  way  to  trace  some  of  these  curious 
family  relationships  in  words.  Philologists  have  worked  out  a 
list  of  several  hundred  Indo-European  roots  from  which  are 


266  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

descended  thousands  of  words  in  various  languages,  including 
Greek,  Latin,  and  English.  Pick's  list  will  be  found  in  the 
introduction  to  the  New  International  Dictionary.  A  similar 
list  by  Skeat  appears  in  the  appendix  to  Skeat's  Etymological 
Dictionary.  The  student  may  work  out  for  himself  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas  which  links  together  the  strangely  diverse  words  in 
some  of  these  groups. 

AK,  meaning  to  pierce,  to  be  sharp,  to  be  quick,  gives  us,  through 
various  languages,  our  words  acid,  acme,  acrid,  acute,  edge,  axe. 

DIEW,  meaning  to  shine,  gives  us  divine,  deity,  dial,  diary,  Zeus,  Jupiter, 
Jove,  jovial,  Tuesday. 

GHES,  meaning  to  strike,  to  destroy,  gives  us  the  two  ideas,  naturally- 
associated  among  primitive  peoples,  of  an  enemy  and  a  foreigner.  From 
the  one  we  get,  through  the  Latin,  our  word  hostile,  and  host  (an  army) ;  from 
the  other,  the  Germanic  word  guest.  The  man  who  feeds  a  stranger  is  his 
host;  a  place  for  the  entertainment  of  strangers  is  a  hospice  or  a  hotel;  a 
special  kind  of  refuge  for  travelers  or  for  the  unfortunate  stranger  is  a 
hospital;  a  servant  about  a  hotel  is  a  hostler. 

KERS,  meaning  to  move  fast,  gives  us,  through  the  Latin,  current, 
course;  also,  through  the  Celtic,  the  word  carol,  a  rapid  song,  and  car, 
a  rapidly  moving  vehicle.  From  car,  which  passed  into  Latin  and  the 
Romance  languages,  we  have  the  derived  words  cart,  chariot,  cargo,  carry, 
career.  The  word  charge  originally  meant  to  load  a  cart,  and  a  caricature 
is  a  comic  picture  overloaded  with  exaggeration.  The  Germanic  horse  and 
the  Celtic-Romance  carriage  are  both  from  this  root. 

MEN  means  to  think.  We  have  thus  man,  the  thinking  animal,  who 
has  a  mind.  By  his  mental  powers  he  masters  mathematics.  He  builds 
monuments  to  make  other  men  remember  the  dead;  he  admonishes  the  Uving; 
sometimes  he  forgets  (ceases  to  think  of)  an  injury  and  grants  amnesty  to 
the  offender.  He  has  reminiscences  and  moods.  Minerva  and  the  Muses 
bear  witness  to  his  worship  of  intellect.  This  is  a  nobler  word  for  a  man  than 
homo,  the  child  of  the  dust,  the  slave  of  the  soil  {humus). 

PER  is  an  interesting  root.  It  means  to  go  through,  to  advance.  We 
have  from  it  the  old  verb /arc,  with  the  modern  noun  fare;  ferry,  far;  ford; 
port,  portal,  porter,  export,  porch.  Li  the  sense  of  one  passing  through  diffi- 
culties and  dangers  the  root  yields  such  words  as  expert,  experience,  peril, 
and  fear.  A  pirate  is  one  who  tries  a  dangerous  experiment;  what  we  call 
an  adventurer. 


WORDS  267 

SKEU  means  to  cover  or  shelter.  The  sky  covers  us  all.  Sometimes  a 
cloud  obscures  it,  and  then  we  may  expect  a  shower.  A  standing  pool,  or  a 
soup-pot,  is  covered  with  scum,  which  we  may  skim  off.  The  Latin  for 
shield  is  scutum,  which  through  the  French  gives  us  escutcheon,  and  esquire, 
a  shield-bearer.  This  same  root,  SKEU,  may  be  the  origin  of  that  group 
which  includes  the  Latin  word  custodian,  a  guard  or  protector,  and  the 
Germanic  words  house,  hut,  hide,  hoard. 

TEN  means  to  stretch.  Literally  it  gives  us  the  tent,  which  is  stretched 
out;  the  tendon,  the  tendril,  the  tone  of  a  stretched  string;  thin,thiLt  which  is 
stretched,  and  tender,  which  originally  meant  thin.  Tenco  in  Latin  comes  to 
mean  to  hold;  and  from  that  meaning  are  derived  many  words  such  as  con- 
tain, content,  tenacious,  attention,  tenement,  lieutenant,  and  dozens  of  others. 

WEGH  looks  like  wagon,  and  naturally  enough,  for  wagon  comes  from 
this  root,  which  means  to  move,  to  carry.  The  dog  wags  his  tail.  Vehicles 
and  wagons  carry  us  along  the  way.  The  veins  carry  the  blood;  a  veil  was 
once  the  sail  which  carried  a  boat  along.  A  wedge  is  a  mover  of  wood,  a 
splitter.     To  weigh  a  thing  is  to  lift  it  ("weigh  anchor"). 

WEID  means  to  see,  to  know.  It  gives  us  wise,  wisdom,  wit,  wizard, 
witch,  to  wit,  tmwitting,  all  Germanic;  vision,  evidence,  and  kindred  Latin 
words;  idea,  history,  idol,  from  the  Greek;  and  the  name  of  the  ancient  Hindu 
scriptures  in  Sanskrit  is  the  Vedas. 

188.  Word-formation  in  English.  Such  comparisons  throw 
many  curious  side  lights  on  the  history  of  language,  which  illus- 
trate the  less  obvious  values  of  words;  but  after  all  they  do 
not  help  us  directly  to  determine  the  present  meanings  of  words. 
For  that  purpose  a  more  practical  guide  is  a  study  of  word-for- 
mation as  it  has  gone  on  in  our  own  language.  The  native  or 
Saxon  portion  of  the  English  vocabulary  is  more  familiar  to 
ordinary  people  than  the  Latin-French  portion.  Even  those 
students  who  have  devoted  several  years  to  Latin  are  often  ap- 
parently unable  to  apply  this  knowledge  to  the  interpretation  of 
English  words.  Much  more  difificult  than  the  Latin  element 
in  Enghsh  is  the  large  and  increasing  Greek  terminology  of 
physical  science.  Biologists,  in  particular,  and  medical  men, 
employ  a  multitude  of  technical  terms  compounded  from  Greek 
roots.  Inasmuch  as  few  scientific  students  know  a  word  of 
Greek,  hundreds  of  such  compounds  have  to  be  committed 


268  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

to  memory  as  mere  arbitrary  formsjwith  no  knowledge  of  the 
primary  meaning  ol  the  roots  from  which  they  are  made.  It  is 
useless  at  this  stage  of  American  education  to  try  to  restore  the 
required  study  of  Greek;  almost  useless  to  expect  scientific 
students  to  elect  it;  but  all  college  students  should  learn  as  a 
matter  of  general  information  the  signification  of  a  few  common 
Greek  words  employed  in  scientific  terminology. 

The  following  word-hsts  contain  one  hundred  Latin  words 
and  one  hundred  Greek  words,  with  examples  of  EngHsh  words 
derived  from  them.  They  are  to  be  learned,  not  by  rote,  but  by 
association  with  the  meaning  of  the  English  words.  The  Greek 
Ust  is  printed  in  part  for  reference,  containing  as  it  does  a  number 
of  words  used  only  in  technical  scientific  terms.  Mere  memoriz- 
ing of  these  hsts  is  not  recommended,  but  such  a  use  of  them  in 
word-analysis  as  will  tend  to  cultivate  a  certain  curiosity  about 
new  words,  instead  of  a  blind  reliance  on  the  dictionary.  A 
student  who  comes  across  a  new  word,  like  retrogression,  or 
hydro-dynamic,  ought  to  be  able  at  once  to  define  it.  He  will 
hardly  guess,  on  the  other  hand,  that  cryptogatn,  which  seems  to 
mean  a  secret  marriage,  refers  not  to  an  elopement  but  to  a  plant 
without  stamens  or  pistils.  There  are  many  scientific  terms 
that  cannot  be  understood  from  their  etymology  alone;  but  the 
root  nearly  always  throws  some  light  on  the  meaning,  and  helps 
one  to  remember  it.  In  the  case  of  ordinary  non-technical  words 
of  Latin  or  Greek  origin,  a  knowledge  of  the  etymology  will 
often  protect  the  student  against  mispronunciation  or  mis- 
spelling, as  in  words  like  sacrilegious,  supersede,  description^ 
affect,  and  effect. 

189.     Latin  words  common  in  English  compounds. 


Prefixes 

I. 

ab,  abs;  a 

from 

absolve,  abstract,  avert 

2. 

ad 

to 

adhere,  affect,  attract 

3- 

ante 

before 

antecedent 

4- 

hi 

two 

biennial,  bisect 

WORDS 


269 


5. 

drcum 

around 

circumnavigate 

6. 

con,  CO 

together 

convene,  coordinate 

7. 

contra 

against 

contradict 

8. 

de 

from,  about,  nega- 

tive 

descend,  decompose 

9. 

di,  dis 

away  from,  nega- 

tive 

diverge,  dishonest 

10. 

e,  ex 

out  of,  former 

educate,  ex-president 

II. 

extra 

beyond 

extradite 

12. 

in 

in,  negative 

induce,  injustice 

13- 

inter 

between 

interstate 

14. 

intro 

into,  within 

introspection 

15- 

non 

negative 

non-resident 

16. 

ob 

toward,  against 

object,  occur 

17- 

per 

through,  thorough 

perceive,  peroxide 

18. 

pre 

before 

precede 

19- 

pro 

forward,  for 

proceed,  pronoun 

20. 

re 

back,  again 

recede,  revise 

21. 

retro 

back 

retrogression 

22. 

se 

apart 

secede 

23- 

sub 

under 

submarine,  support 

24. 

super 

above 

supernatural 

25- 

trans 

across,  beyond 
Verbs 

transcontinental 

26. 

ago,  actum 

do 

agent,  act 

27. 

audio,  auditum 

hear 

audible,  auditor 

28. 

cado,  casum 

fall 

decadent,  occasion 

29. 

caedo  (cid),  caesum 

cut 

decide,  incision 

30. 

capio,  captum 

take 

recipient,  capture 

31- 

cedo,  cessum 

go 

precede,  procession 

32. 

credo,  creditum 

believe 

creed,  credit 

33- 

curro,  cursum 

run 

current,  course 

34- 

do,  datum 

give 

dative,  data 

35- 

dico,  dictum 

say 

edict,  predict 

36. 

doceo,  doctum 

teach 

docile,  doctor 

37- 

duco,  ductum 

lead 

educate,  deduct 

3^. 

facio,  factum 

make,  do 

efficient,  factory 

39- 

fero,  latum 

bear,  carry 

differ,  collate 

40. 

flecto,  flexum 

bend 

deflect,  flexible 

41. 

fluo,  fluxum 

flow 

fluent,  flux 

270 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


42. 

frango,  fr actum 

break 

infringe,  fracture 

43- 

fugio,  fugitum 

flee 

refuge,  fugitiv^e 

44. 

gradior,  gressus 

walk 

grade,  congress 

45- 

habeo,  habitum 

have,  hold 

habit,  exhibit 

46. 

jacio,  jactum 

throw 

projectile,  inject 

47- 

jungo,  junctum 

join 

junction,  adjunct 

48. 

lego,  lectum 

read 

legend,  lecture 

49. 

loquor,  locutus 

speak 

eloquent,  interlocutor 

50. 

mitto,  missum 

send 

admit,  missile 

51- 

moveo,  motum 

move 

move,  motion 

52. 

nascor,  natus 

be  born 

nascent,  innate 

53- 

patior,  passus 

suffer 

patient,  passive 

54- 

pello,  pulsum 

drive 

expel,  propulsion 

55- 

pendeo,  pensum 

hang 

dependent,  pending 

56. 

pendo,  pensum 

weigh 

expend, expense 

57- 

plico,  plicatum 

fold 

complicate,  duplicate 

58. 

pono,  positum 

place 

exponent,  position 

59- 

probo,  probatum 

prove 

probable,  probate 

60. 

rego,  rectum 

rule 

regent,  rector 

61. 

rumpo,  ruptum 

break 

interrupt,  rupture 

62. 

scribo,  scrip tum 

write 

describe,  inscription 

63. 

seco,  sectum 

cut 

secant,  section 

64. 

sedeo,  sessum 

sit 

supersede,  session 

65. 

sequor,  secutus 

follow 

consequent,  consecutive 

66. 

solvo,  solutum 

loosen 

dissolve,  solution 

67. 

specie,  spectum 

look 

retrospect,  inspect 

68. 

spiro,  spiratum 

breathe 

inspire,  expiration 

69. 

sto,  statum 

stand 

instant,  station 

70. 

tango,  tactum 

touch 

tangent,  contact 

71- 

tendo,  tensum 

stretch 

attend,  tension 

72. 

teneo,  tentum 

hold 

tenement,  content 

73- 

venio,  ventum 

come 

convene,  intervention 

74- 

verto,  versum 

turn 

convert,  verse 

75- 

video,  visum 

see 
Nouns  and  Numerals 

evident,  vision 

76. 

anima 

Ufa 

animal 

77- 

annus 

year 

anniversary 

78. 

caput  (genitive, 
capitis) 

head 

capital 

79. 

centum 

hundred 

centennial 

WORDS 


271 


80. 

civis 

citizen 

civil 

81. 

corpus  (genitive, 
corporis) 

body 

corporation 

82. 

dies 

day 

diary 

83. 

dominus 

lord 

dominate 

84. 

finis 

end 

infinite 

85. 

lex  (genitive,  legisj 

law 

illegal 

86. 

lingua 

tongue 

bilingual 

87. 

littera 

letter 

illiterate 

88. 

lumen  (genitive 
luminis) 

light 

illumination 

89. 

manus 

hand 

manufacture 

90. 

mare 

sea 

submarine 

91. 

mille 

thousand 

millennium 

92. 

mors  (genitive, 
mortis) 

death 

immortal 

93- 

nomen  (genitive, 
nominis) 

name 

nominate 

94- 

norma 

rule 

abnormal 

95- 

nox  (genitive,  noctis 

)  night 

nocturnal 

96. 

numerus 

number 

innumerable 

97- 

opera 

work 

inoperative 

98. 

pes  (genitive,  pedis) 

foot 

pedal 

99. 

terra 

earth 

subterranean 

100. 

via 

way 

deviate 

Note. —  Only  the  commonest  meaning  or  meanings  of  each  Latin  word 
will  be  found  in  the  list.  The  two  verb  forms  given  are  the  present  and 
supine  stems,  both  of  which  yield  many  English  derivatives.  The  list  of 
fifty  verbs  and  twenty-five  nouns  might  be  indefinitely  extended.  The 
class  can  suggest  additions  of  equally  common  words. 

190.     Greek  words   common  in  English   compounds.     The 

forms  given  for  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  nouns  are  not  the 
complete  Greek  words,  but  the  stems,  or  combining  forms,  in 
which  they  appear  in  EngHsh.  It  is  unnecessary  for  the  student 
to  learn  the  Greek  terminations  which  do  not  appear  in  com- 
pounds. 


Prefixes 

I.    a,  an 

negative 

aseptic,  anhydrous 

2.     amphi 

both,  around 

amphibious,  amphitheater 

272 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


9- 
lo. 
II. 

12. 

13- 

14. 

15- 


30- 
31- 


ana 

anti 

cata 

dia 

ec 

epi 

h>'per 

h^po 

meta 

para 

peri 

pro 

syn 


16.  mono 

17.  di 

18.  tri 

19.  tetra 

20.  pcnta 

21.  hexa 

22.  hepta 

23.  octa 

24.  deca 

25.  hemi 


A  djectives 


26.  archaic 

27.  auto 

28.  crypto 

29.  dys 
ecto,  exo 
endo 


32.  eu 

33-  gen 

34.  glyco 

35.  gymno 

36.  hctcro 

37.  homo 

38.  iso 

39.  mega 


up 

analysis,  anode 

against 

antiseptic 

down 

catastrophe,  cathode 

through 

diameter 

out  of 

eccentric 

upon 

epitaph 

above,  excessive 

hypertrophy,  hyperchloric 

under,  deficient 

hyposulphite 

after,  different 

metabolism 

beside 

paragraph 

around 

perimeter 

before 

prologue 

with 

sympathy 

Numerals 

one,  only 

monogamy 

two 

dioxide 

three 

trigonometiy 

four 

tetrameter 

five 

pentameter 

six 

hexameter 

seven 

heptameter 

eight 

octagon 

ten 

decalogue 

half 

hemisphere 

ud  Adverbs  (Coml 

ining  Forms) 

primitive 

archaeology 

self 

autonomy 

hidden 

cryptogram,  cryptogam 

difficult 

dyspepsia 

outside 

ectoderm,  exogen 

inside 

endoderm,  endogen 

well 

euphony 

producing,  growing 

hydrogen,  endogen 

sweet 

glycogen 

bare 

gymnasium,  gymnosperm 

other 

heterodox 

same 

homon>Tn 

equal 

isotherm,  isobar 

large 

megaphone,  megalomania 

WORDS 


273 


40. 

meso 

middle 

mesozoic,  mesoblast 

41. 

micro 

small 

microscope,  microphone 

42. 

neo 

new 

neolithic 

43- 

ortho 

right 

orthography,  orthopedic 

44. 

palaeo 

old 

paleoUthic 

45- 

pan 

aU 

pan-American 

46. 

phanero 

visible 

phanerogamic 

47- 

poly 

many 

polygamy 

48. 

proto 

first 

protozoon,  protoplasm 

49- 

pseudo 

false 

pseudonym 

50. 

tele 

far 

telegraph 

Nouns  {Combining  Forms) 

51- 

andro,  anthropo 

man  (Bot.,  stamen)  androgynous,  anthropolo 

52. 

astro 

star 

astrophysics 

53- 

baro 

weight 

barometer 

54- 

biblio 

book 

bibliography 

55- 

bio 

Ufe 

biology 

56. 

blasto 

sprout,  germ 

blastoderm,  mesoblast 

57- 

carp 

fruit 

polycarpous 

58. 

chrono 

time 

synchronous 

59- 

cosmo 

world 

cosmopoUtan 

60. 

cyte 

ceU 

leucocyte 

61. 

dermis 

skin 

epidermis 

62. 

dynamo 

power 

dynamometer 

63. 

ethno 

race,  nation 

ethnology 

64. 

gam 

marriage  (Bot. 
tiUzation) 

,  fer-  polygamy,  cryptogamic 

65- 

gastri 

stomach 

gastritis 

66. 

ge 

earth 

geology 

67. 

gram 

letter 

telegram 

68. 

graphy 

writing 

biography 

69. 

gyne 

woman  (Bot.,  \ 

aisdl)  monogynous 

70. 

histo 

tissue 

histology 

71- 

hydro 

water 

hydraulics 

72. 

hygro 

moisture 

hygroscopic 

73- 

icthyo 

fish 

icthyology 

74- 

lith 

stone 

neolithic 

75' 

logy 

word,  science 

philology,  biology 

76. 

meter 

measure 

thermometer 

77" 

morpho 

form 

morphology 

274 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


78. 

neuro 

nerve 

neuropathic 

79- 

ornitho 

bird 

ornithology 

80. 

osteo 

bone 

periosteum 

81. 

ped 

child 

pedagogy,  pediatrics 

82. 

patho 

feeling,  suffering 

pathology 

83- 

philo 

friend,  lover 

philologian 

84. 

phone 

sound 

microphone 

85- 

photo 

light 

photometer 

86. 

phyllo 

leaf 

phyllotaxy 

87. 

physio 

nature 

physiology 

88. 

phyto 

plant 

phytozoon 

89. 

plasm 

substance  molded 

protoplasm 

90. 

pneuma 

air 

pneumatic 

91- 

pus,  pod 

foot 

octopus 

92. 

psycho 

mind 

psychology 

93- 

scope 

instrument  for  see- 
ing 

laryngoscope 

94- 

sophy 

wisdom 

philosophy,  theosophy 

95- 

sperm 

seed 

gymnosi>erm 

96. 

stoma 

mouth 

anastomosis 

97- 

techne 

art 

technical 

98. 

theo 

God 

polytheism 

99- 

thesis 

placing 

synthesis 

100. 

zoon 

animal 

protozoon 

191.  Usage  as  affecting  the  meaning  of  words.  Inchoosing 
words,  a  writer  or  speaker  may  be  governed  by  one  or  more  of 
these  four  aims:  correctnesSj  clearness,  force,  beauty.  The 
methods  in  obtaining  correctness  and  clearness  by  means  of 
good  structure  in  paragraphs  and  sentences  have  been  discussed 
and  practiced  in  the  first  half  of  this  course.  Correctness  and 
clearness  in  the  choice  of  words  depend  upon  a  knowledge  not  only 
of  their  derivation  but  also  of  their  usage.  The  four  adjectives 
transient,  transitory,  transitive,  and  transitional  all  come  from  the 
Latin  verb  transire,  to  go  over  or  across.  They  all  imply  move- 
ment, change.  But  usage  has  determined  that  we  shall  say 
a  transient  guest,  a  transitory  world,  a  transitive  verb,  a  transi- 
tional period.     To  speak  of  a  transitory  verb,  or  a  transitive 


WORDS  275 

world,  is  absurd.  The  verbs  substitute,  supersede,  replace,  and 
displace  have  kindred  meanings  and  somewhat  similar  deriva- 
tions; but  it  is  incorrect  to  say,  as  careless  speakers  often  do, 
that  one  man  is  substituted  by  another.  One  man  (A)  may  be 
substituted  for  another  (B);  but  B  is  displaced  or  superseded  by 
A.  Etymology  taken  by  itself  gives  us  no  aid  in  following  these 
changes  wrought  by  usage.  Environment  has  as  much  to  do 
with  words  as  heredity.  To  each  term  of  the  following  series 
military  usage  has  assigned  a  definite  meaning:  company,  bat- 
talion, regiment,  brigade,  division,  corps,  army.  Each  word 
taken  by  itself  might  be  vaguely  or  metaphorically  used  of  any 
number  of  armed  men.  The  series,  however,  is  technical,  and 
can  be  defined  not  at  all  by  etymology,  but  only  by  reference  to 
a  good  dictionary. 

192.  Definition.  The  test  of  exact  knowledge  concerning  the 
meaning  of  a  word  is  to  define  it  without  referring  to  a  dic- 
tionary. Thus  one  may  affirm  that  under  present  American 
conditions  a  regiment  of  infantry  is  a  body  of  foot-soldiers  nor- 
mally consisting  of  three  battalions.  One  may  define  a  major 
as  the  commanding  officer  of  a  battalion,  or  as  a  commissioned 
officer  next  in  rank  below  a  lieutenant-colonel.  A  jail  is  a 
place  of  detention  for  persons  accused  of  crime  while  awaiting 
trial,  and  for  convicts  serving  short  terms  of  imprisonment. 
These  are  not  dictionary  definitions,  and  are  open  to  various 
criticisms.  Thus  it  might  be  objected  that  not  all  persons 
awaiting  trial  are  kept  in  jail,  for  many  are  released  on  bail; 
and.  a  question  might  be  raised  as  to  what  is  meant  by  a  short 
imprisonment.  The  one-sentence  definition  would  have  to  be 
expanded  into  two  or  three  in  order  to  cover  such  points.  If 
it  were  demanded  that  the  jail  should  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  penitentiary,  a  whole  paragraph  of  exposition  would 
be  necessary.  Indeed,  much  exposition  is  only  expanded 
definition. 

A  definition  is  a  statement  which  assigns  the  subject,  first,  to  a 


276  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

general  class,  and  then  to  a  special  part  of  that  class;  in  other 
words,  as  naturahsts  say,  to  a  genus  and  a  species.  We  assign 
the  jail  to  the  general  class  places  of  detention  (the  genus),  and 
distinguish  it  from  police  stations,  reformatories,  penitentiaries, 
hospitals  for  the  insane,  and  other  places  of  detention  by  nam- 
ing two  of  its  differences  from  other  species  of  the  genus.  If 
we  had  assigned  the  jail  to  a  genus  so  vague  as  that  of  houses 
or  public  buildings,  we  should  have  had  to  make  a  longer  defi- 
nition; for  the  idea  denoted  by  the  phrase  place  of  detention 
would  have  had  to  be  included  among  the  differences.  The 
secret  of  a  good  definition  is  therefore  to  choose  a  genus  as 
limited  as  can  be  found  to  include  the  subject.  The  term  lilac 
is  to  be  assigned,  not  to  the  genus  plant,  but  to  the  genus 
flowering  shrub.  Of  course  a  botanist  assigns  it  to  the  botan- 
ical genus  syringa.  The  term  violoncello  is  not  merely  "a 
musical  instrument";  it  is  "a  stringed  instrument  (genus) 
played  with  a  bow"  (species);  and  the  only  differences  that 
need  to  be  added  are  as  to  its  comparative  size  and  its  place 
in  the  string  quintette.  A  pencil  is  "a  writing  instrument"; 
a  gouge  is  "a  cutting  tool";  a'  lagoon  is  "a  body  of  water." 
The  more  carefully  the  genus  is  narrowed  down,  the  easier  will 
it  be  to  assign  the  specific  differences. 

Definitions  of  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  cannot  always 
be  framed  on  this  principle  of  assigning  them  to  a  genus  and 
naming  differences.  We  may  say  that  to  revise  is  "to  examine 
with  a  view  to  correction  and  improvement,"  in  which  the 
genus  is  "to  examine";  or  that  to  transplant  is  "to  move  a 
plant  from  one  situation  to  another."  But  the  only  way  we 
can  define  adjnirable  or  quickly  is  by  the  use  of  synonyms  or 
paraphrases.  Such  definitions  are  always  liable  to  the  error 
of  defining  a  thing  by  itself,  in  sentences  like  these:  "A  judge 
is  a  judicial  officer."  "Vicious  is  of  the  nature  of  vice.'  "Suit- 
ably is  in  a  manner  that  suits."  No  word  derived  from  the 
same  root  may  be  used  in  definition. 


WORDS  277 

It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  add  that  a  man's  definition  may 
never  be  in  the  childish  form,  "An  avalanche  is  where  a  large 
quantity  of  snow  slides  down  a  mountain,"  or  "A  conviction  is 
when  a  jury  finds  a  man  guilty."  In  the  definition  of  a  noun 
the  verb  is  must  always  be  followed  by  a  noun  or  noun  phrase, 
never  by  an  adverbial  clause.  This  is  a  matter  of  grammar 
rather  than  of  rhetoric;  nevertheless  there  are  few  college 
classes  in  which  the  "It's  where"  definition  is  not  sometimes 
heard. 

Practice  in  impromptu  definition  of  assigned  words  without 
consulting  a  dictionary  will  bring  out  the  difficulties  of  accurately 
marking  the  limitations  and  distinctions  of  ideas.  If  we  were 
always  called  upon  to  define  words  before  we  used  them,  there 
would  be  less  talking.  Fortunately  this  is  neither  necessary  nor 
desirable;  but  occasionally  it  is  well  to  test  the  extent  of  our 
ignorance  by  trying  to  put  vague  conceptions  into  words.  The 
most  valuable  part  of  practice  in  definition  is  the  habit  of  not- 
ing the  finer  distinctions  in  words.  This  naturally  leads  us  to 
a  discussion  of  synonyms. 

193.  Synonyms.  Synonyms  are  words  of  similar  or  identical 
meaning.  The  Enghsh  language  is  rich  in  synonyms.  For 
every  verb  or  adjective,  every  abstract  noun,  in  the  vocabulary 
of  the  ordinary  college  freshman  there  exist  several  approximate 
equivalents,  some  one  of  which  is  quite  likely  to  be  nearer  his 
thought.  We  may  say  of  a  man  that  he  is  capable  of  doing 
great  things,  or  able,  or  competent,  to  do  them.  Here  are  three 
distinct  ideas,  closely  akin.  A  source  of  water  supply  may  be 
called  sufficient,  or  adequate,  or  abundant.  A  fire,  or  a  rail- 
road accident,  may  cause  apprehension,  anxiety,  fright,  fear, 
dismay,  consternation,  terror,  horror;  it  can  hardly  cause  awe. 
That  is  aroused  only  by  great  convulsions  of  nature  or  of  the 
human  soul.  Awe  is  one  of  our  strongest  nouns;  that  is  the 
reason  why  we  have  perversely  chosen  to  make  from  it  one  of 
our  weakest  adjectives.    Those  who  know  just  where  a  word 


278  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

like  awe,  or  splendor,  or  glory  belongs  in  the  scale  of  human 
values  may  well  hesitate  to  toss  about  the  corresponding  adjec- 
tives like  petty  coins.  This  weakening  of  our  words  of  high 
potential  has  come  to  such  a  pass  that  we  have  few  strong 
words  left.  The  best  we  can  do  is  to  guard  the  values  that 
survive  in  literary  English,  the  English  of  elevated  prose  and  of 
poetry.  For  such  conservation  of  natural  resources  a  study  of 
words,  and  especially  of  synonyms,  is  indispensable.  When 
we  see  how  swiftly  a  noble  word  can  be  debased,  and  how  whole 
generations  suffer  for  the  want  of  it,  we  shall  be  loath  to  join  in 
the  cheapening  of  a  precious  thing  that  cannot  be  replaced. 

194.  "Words  as  conveying  force  and  beauty.  We  are  now 
passing  the  invisible  frontier  that  separates  the  use  of  language 
as  a  trade  from  the  use  of  language  as  an  art.  The  artisan's 
English  aims  only  to  get  a  thing  said  so  that  it  can  be  under- 
stood. The  artist's  EngUsh  aims  to  do  that,  and  more.  The 
something  more  is  to  suggest  more  than  the  word  actually 
denotes.  Besides  correctness  and  clearness  it  is  desirable  to 
attain  force  in  all  kinds  of  speaking  and  writing;  and  in  many, 
if  not  in  all,  it  is  desirable  and  possible  to  attain  a  kind  of  beauty. 
The  choice  of  words  with  particular  reference  to  their  force  and 
their  beauty  (that  is,  their  peculiar  fitness  to  the  idea)  is  often 
called  diction.  It  is  an  important  element  in  style.  No  writer, 
however  logical  his  paragraphs  and  his  sentences,  can  hope  to  be 
interesting  without  some  care  for  diction.  It  will  not  do  for 
him  to  be  content  with  any  word  which,  according  to  the 
dictionary,  denotes  his  thought.  He  must  have  some  care  as  to 
what  his  words  suggest;  what  their  associations  are ;  what  feel- 
ings of  admiration  or  disgust,  seriousness  or  absurdity,  they 
carry  with  them.  He  must  recognize  that  in  all  kinds  of  speak- 
ing and  writing  that  aim  at  conveying  feeling  as  well  as  thought, 
the  hidden  values  of  words  are  to  be  taken  into  account.  This 
docs  not  apply  to  a  technical  essay  on  the  combusion  of  low- 
grade  bituminous  coal.     It  does  apply  to  an  essay  on  the  moral 


WORDS  279 

training  of  low-grade  boys,  or  an  address  on  the  suppression  of 
low-grade  reading. 

195.  Denotation  and  connotation.  These  two  values  of  a 
word  may  be  expressed  as  its  coefficient  and  its  exponent;  as 
its  length  and  breadth,  on  the  one  hand,  and  its  height  or  depth, 
on  the  other.  Or  they  may  be  thought  of  as  the  primary  and  the 
induced  electric  current  of  a  word;  or  as  the  primary  note  and 
the  upper  partial  vibrations  (overtones)  of  a  piano  string,  or  a 
church  bell.  It  is  true  that  some  minds  cannot  perceive  a  third 
dimension  in  language,  since  they  live  in  but  two.  So  there 
are  plenty  of  people  who  cannot  hear  the  overtones  in  a  bell. 
That  is  their  misfortune — though  they  are  rather  too  apt  to  boast 
of  it,  as  a  man  boasts  that  he  never  reads  poetry,  or  a  woman 
that  she  cannot  sew.  But  the  overtones  are  there  just  the  same, 
and  so  is  the  poetry  (likewise  the  sewing).  The  primary  value 
of  a  word  is  its  denotation;  its  secondary,  association  value,  is 
called  its  connotatioti. 

Such  a  distinction  is  best  shown  by  illustrations.  The  word 
elegance  denotes  choiceness :  the  quality  which  comes  from  care- 
ful selection  of  the  best  and  fittest.  At  present,  in  this  country 
at  least,  it  connotes  show,  display,  ostentation,  luxury.  In  fact, 
it  is  one  of  those  debased  words  to  which  reference  has  been 
made.  The  older  rhetoricians  insisted  on  elegance  as  an  impor- 
tant quality  in  style.  To  modern  readers  this  suggests  the 
intolerable  notion  of  picking  out  words  because  they  sound 
pretty.  A  sensible  writer  will  recognize  such  associations,  how- 
ever irrational,  and  avoid  the  word  as  a  term  of  commendation. 
Words  of  poetical  connotation  are  often  felt  to  be  inappropriate 
in  plain  prose.  There  are  words  like  dell,  and  glc7i,  and  glade, 
and  isle,  with  a  somewhat  poetical  connotation,  which  may  on 
that  account  be  all  the  more  suitable  for  some  kinds  of  prose 
description,  whereas  in  a  guidebook  or  a  newspaper  they  would 
look  foolish. 

The  test  is,  what  associations  does  this  word  call  up  in  the 


28o  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

mind,  aside  from  its  direct  meaning?  Does  it  suggest  things 
romantic  and  bookish,  like  bourgeon?  Then  it  wilJ  not  do  in 
an  unromantic  and  unbookish  style.  Does  it  have  a  clashing 
note,  a  discord  among  its  overtones?  Then  it  is  out  of  place  in 
a  serious  composition.  One  of  the  easiest  and  most  effective 
ways  of  being  funny  is  to  ignore  or  defy  the  connotation  of  words. 
Unless  a  writer  intends  to  be  funny,  he  must  take  care  not  to 
introduce  homely  words  into  lofty  discourse;  and  unless  he  means 
to  be  ridiculous  he  will  not  use  poetical  or  learned  words  in 
ordinary  talk  — but  modern  students  seldom  do  that. 

There  are  words,  good  enough  in  themselves,  whose  connota- 
tion makes  them  unsuitable  for  some  kinds  of  composition; 
such  as  words  referring  too  baldly  to  death  {corpse,  deceased); 
to  unpleasant  sensations;  to  crimes  and  vices,  diseases  and  de- 
formities, and  all  kinds  of  ugliness.  A  legitimate  euphemism 
controls  here.  This  is  very  far  from  squeamishness.  The 
question  at  this  point  becomes  one  not  so  much  of  words  as  of 
ideas,  and  may  safely  be  left  to  a  normal  and  educated  taste. 

In  trying  to  estimate  the  value  of  words  according  to  their 
connotation,  we  discover  that  there  is  an  unknown  quantity  in 
the  equation  —  the  reader's  mental  associations,  which  differ 
from  the  writer's  in  ways  that  cannot  be  foreseen.  A  word  like 
success,  which  to  many  young  Americans  seems  to  connote  all 
that  is  worth  having  in  life,  may  suggest  to  some  readers  only 
the  vulgar  rich.  Culture  is  a  word  that  Matthew  Arnold 
and  his  disciples  have  bravely  tried  to  rescue  from  dilettante 
connotations;  yet  it  is  doubtful  if  they  have  succeeded.  In 
the  end  every  one  must  test  connotation  by  his  own  honest 
estimate  of  the  word's  effect  upon  his  own  a-dmiration  or  disgust. 
Does  he  have  to  repress  a  smile  when  he  hears  it?  Then  others 
may  not  even  repress  their  smiles.  Does  the  word  sound  like  a 
drum,  or  a  tin  pan?  A  trumpet,  or  a  penny  whistle?  If  it  is 
weak  on  the  lips  of  the  speaker,  it  will  be  weaker  in  the  ears  of 
the  crowd;  for  a  man  must  believe  in  his  own  words. 


WORDS  281 

196.  The  study  of  synonyms.  The  reading  of  great  litera- 
ture will  unfailingly  develop  our  power  to  perceive  word  values. 
While  we  cannot  pick  out,  as  we  read,  a  list  of  words,  and 
label  one  witty,  another  delicate,  another  majestic,  or  mystical, 
or  austere,  yet  our  taste  is  cultivated  and  our  judgment  ma- 
tured. Particularly  is  it  helpful  to  study  synonyms  as  found 
in  the  style  of  a  writer  given  to  the  expansion  of  thought  by 
iteration  and  paraphrase.  The  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  collects  and  liturgies  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  offer  a  rich  field  for  a  study  of  word  values.  The  ad- 
jectives in  descriptions,  the  verbs  in  narrative,  the  abstract 
nouns  in  essays  and  orations,  should  be  observed  with  the  spe- 
cific intent  to  discover  why  these  words  were  used  rather  than 
others,  and  what  special  associations  they  convey. 

One  special  reason  for  acquiring  a  mastery  of  synonyms  may 
be  separately  mentioned.  It  is  often  convenient  to  have  a 
choice  of  two  or  three  words  in  order  either  to  avoid  repetition 
or  to  escape  a  harsh  sound.  The  principle  of  variety  in  style 
prohibits  a  monotonous  recurrence  of  the  same  word  unless 
designed  for  clearness  or  emphasis.  Merely  accidental  or  care- 
less repetition  of  an  adjective  within  the  same  sentence,  and 
frequently  of  a  noun,  should  be  corrected  in  revision  by  sub- 
stituting a  synonym.  A  lack  of  euphony  due  to  unpleasant 
combination  of  harsh  consonants,  a  faulty  rhythm,  or  a  rime 
in  prose,  should  be  similarly  remedied.  The  ridiculous  extent 
to  which  the  fear  of  repetition  is  carried  in  the  style  of  some 
newspaper  reporters  and  headhne  writers  need  not  lead  students 
to  neglect  reasonable  care  in  this  matter.  When  clearness  re- 
quires either  repetition  (since  there  is  no  good  synonym)  or  a 
clumsy  paraphrase,  it  is  always  safe  to  repeat. 

The  following  helps  to  the  study  of  synonyms  may  be  recom- 
mended. Some  one  of  them  should  be  accessible  to  the  student 
when  he  is  revising  his  written  work. 


282  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Roget:    Thesaurus  of  English  Words  atid  Phrases. 

Soule:  Dictionary  of  English  Synonymes. 

Crabb:   English  Synonyms. 

Smith:  Synonyms  Discriminated. 

Fernald:   English  Sytionyms,  Antonyms,  and  Prepositions. 

March:    Thesaurus  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language. 

Of  these  books  Roget  and  Soule  merely  list  synonyms,  for 
the  specific  differences  of  which  one  must  consult  the  dictionary. 
Crabb,  Smith,  Fernald,  and  IVTarch  discriminate  the  several 
words  in  each  group.  The  latter  kind  is  more  useful  for  stu- 
dents. Ordinary  dictionaries  also  contan  brief  notes  on  the 
differences  among  synonyms.  Those  in  the  unabridged  diction- 
aries are  in  many  cases  as  good  as  those  in  special  works  on 
synonyms.  Even  the  material  of  this  sort  in  smaller  diction- 
aries, however,  such  as  the  Desk  Standard  Dictionary  and 
Webster's  Secondary  School  Dictionary  is  sufficiently  full  to  be 
Very  useful  in  college  composition. 

197.  Exercise  in  the  discrimination  of  synonyms.  Using  one 
of  the  last  four  of  the  books  on  synonyms  above  named,  or  the 
articles  on  synonyms  in  an  unabridged  dictionary,  or  in  the  Desk 
Standard  Dictionary  or  Webster's  Secondary  School  Dictionary 
or  Collegiate  Dictionary,  study  the  synonyms  of  the  words  in  the 
following  list.  In  this  study  there  are  two  distinct  purposes: 
(i)  to  learn  by  natural  association  of  ideas  as  many  synonyms 
as  possible  for  each  word  —  not  less  than  three  or  four  in  any 
case;  (2)  to  learn  how  these  synonyms  differ  from  one  another 
in  meaning.  In  the  latter  task,  in  the  case  of  words  deri\-cd  from 
Latin,  the  knowledge  already  acquired  by  studying  the  list  of 
Latin  words  in  section  189  will  be  useful.  This  assignment 
should  have  as  much  time  as  may  be  necessary  for  thorough 
preparation.  The  particular  method  best  suited  for  aiding 
memorization  will  differ  with  various  students.  Some  written 
memoranda  will  usually  be  necessary  to  fix  the  material  in  mind. 
The  synonyms  and  their  distinctions  of  meaning  should  be  so 


WORDS 


283 


thoroughly  learned  that  oral  or  written  tests  upon  them  can  be 
successfully  undertaken. 

List  of  Words  for  Study  of  Synonyms 

1.  absurd  37.  fear 

2.  adjacent  38.  fiction 

3.  alliance  39.  financial 

4.  allow  40.  fine 

5.  alternative  41.  formidable 

6.  amateur  42.  friendly 

7.  amazement  43.  frighten 

8.  anticipate  44.  funny 

9.  attain  45.  garrulous 

10.  austere  46.  get 

11.  beautiful  47.  glow 

12.  business  48.  good 

13.  catastrophe  49.  healthy 

14.  circumlocution  50.  idea 

15.  competition  51.  idle 

16.  conquer  52.  identical 

17.  console  53.  ignorant 

18.  continual  54.  imagination 

19.  courage  55.  impediment 

20.  dark  56.  indefatigable 

21.  deception  57.  interpose                                     ' 

22.  delicious  58.  law 

23.  delighted  59.  he 

24.  delusion  60.  hkely 

25.  design  61.  love 

26.  diction  62.  mind 

27.  dream  63.  mysterious 

28.  dress  64.  name 

29.  duplicate  65.  nimble 

30.  enthusiasm  66.  notwithstanding 

31.  equivocal  67.  obscure 

32.  esteem  68.  obtain 

33.  evident  69.  pardon 

34.  examine  70.  permission 

35.  fact  71.  poetry 

36.  faith  72.  praise 


284  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


73 

pretense 

74 

previous 

75 

price 

76 

primeval 

n 

queer 

78 

reason 

79 

religion 

8o 

reprove 

8i 

revenge 

82 

revolution 

83 

riddle 

84 

romantic 

85 

salary 

86 

scholar 

87. 

science 

88. 

sensation 

89. 

sin 

90. 

spontaneous 

91. 

sublime 

92. 

suggestion 

93- 

supernatural 

94. 

suppose 

95- 

tasteful 

96. 

tedious 

97- 

tool 

98. 

topic 

99. 

wisdom 

100. 

wit 

198.  Antonyms.  Antonyms  are  words  of  opposite  meaning; 
the  antonym  of  good  is  had^  that  of  wise  is  unwise  or  foolish, 
that  of  virtue  is  vice.  Not  all  words  have  precise  antonyms; 
some  words  have  several,  differing  by  shades  of  meaning  like 
those  which  distinguish  synonyms.  Good  practice  in  word 
study  can  be  had  by  attempting  to  name  one  or  more  antonyms 
for  each  word  in  an  assigned  list  without  looking  in  a  dictionary. 
The  Standard  Dictionary  lists  antonyms  under  many  words,  after 
the  section  on  synonyms.  A  specific  way  in  which  a  knowledge 
of  antonyms  may  prove  useful  in  writing  is  in  framing  antitheti- 
cal or  balanced  sentences,  in  which  words  and  their  opposites 
are  set  off  against  one  another. 

199.  Doublets.  Another  valuable  exercise  in  discriminating 
words  arises  from  the  existence  in  English  of  a  large  number  of 
doublets.  Doublets  are  pairs  of  words  which  have  come  into 
the  language  at  different  times  from  a  single  root  —  usually 
Latin.  Those  words  which  came  into  English  from  Latin  before 
the  conquest,  and  from  French  before  the  sixteenth  century, 
were  often  so  changed  as  scarcely  to  reveal  the  Latin  original. 
A  second  word  formed  directly  from  the  Latin  was  often  added, 
usually  with  a  change  of  meaning.     Orally  or  in  writing  the  class 


WORDS 


285 


should  differentiate,  both  in  denotation  and  in  connotation,  the 
following  doublets: 


aggrieve,  aggravate 
amiable,  amicable 
appraise,  appreciate 
balm,  balsam 
benison,  benediction 
blame,  blaspheme 
chasten,  castigate 
chivalry,  cavalry 
chateau,  castle 
choir,  chorus 
count,  compute 
confuse,  confound 
coy,  quiet 
strange,  extraneous 
fiddle,  viol 


genteel,  gentle 
human,  humane 
isolate,  insulate 
obeisance,  obedience 
penance,  penitence 
pity,  piety 
poignant,  pungent 
poor,  pauper 
priest,  presbyter 
pursue,  prosecute 
prudent,  provident 
renew,  renovate 
slander,  scandal 
sprite,  spirit 
jealous,  zealous 


200.  Strong  words.  There  is  much  value  in  making  a  list  of 
strong  words,  words  that  give  special  force  to  speech.  These  are 
short,  largely  monosyllables,  and  abound  in  mute  consonants; 
e.g.: 


brag 

flash 

howl 

splash 

brute 

gaunt 

hurl 

stout 

burly 

grease 

pounce 

sturdy 

clang 

grim 

scorn 

thump 

crash 

grime 

scream 

tug 

cringe 

grip 

shudder 

whack 

daft 

groan 

slime 

wheeze 

drag 

heave 

sneak 

wrench 

It  would  be  an  interesting  classroom  exercise  to  collect  on 
the  blackboard  as  many  words  as  possible  notable  for  their  in- 
herent force.  Such  a  word  often  lifts  a  descriptive  sentence 
out  of  weakness  and  dullness  into  real  power.  The  danger  is 
that  having  once  discovered  a  good,  robust  monosyllable  and 
used  it  with  pleasing  effect,  the  writer  may  work  it  to  death. 
But  any  good  thing  can  be  spoiled  by  overuse.     Young  writers 


286  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 

will  avoid  this  danger  if  they  will  be  constantly  looking  for 
new  words  notable  for  force.  The  prose  romances  of  William 
Morris,  and  his  translation  of  Beowulf,  may  be  studied  for 
strong  Saxon  and  Norse  words  of  this  sort.  Morris  carried  his 
admiration  for  them  to  excess;  but  we  learn  the  virtues  of  most 
qualities  in  style,  as  of  most  drugs  in  medicine,  by  observing 
them  in  excess  and  employing  them  in  moderation. 

201.     Overworked  words.    The  striving  for  force  by  using 
new  words,  or  old  words  in  a  new  sense,  is  easily  overdone. 
Literary  critics  of  a  certain  type,  for  example,  sought  at  one 
time  to  praise  a  novel  by  calling  it  a  "big,  red-blooded  story." 
It  was  "gripping,"  then  "convincing"  or  "compelling;"  then 
"intriguing."     Psychological  writers  worked  the  noun  urge  and 
the  vtxh  function  very  hard  for  a  time.     Writers  on  international 
politics  seized  upon  the  familiar  word  gesture,  and  not  only 
twisted  it  into  new  and  unheard  of  meanings  but  grew  so  fond  of 
it  that  an  article  seemed  scarcely  complete  without  several 
"gestures."  Some  of  these  innovations  come  by  way  of  imitation 
of  French  idioms;  some  copy  popular  writers;  some  grow  by 
means  of  newspaper  headlines  and  magazine  advertising.     Part 
of  the  business  of  a  student  of  English  composition  is,  while 
constantly  adding  vigorous  words  and  phrases  to  his  vocabulary, 
to  recognize  at  the  same  time  that  there  is  danger  of  running  a 
new  word  too  hard.     Variety  is  just  as  important  as  force;  and, 
indeed,  force  soon  departs  from  any  form  of  expression  that  has 
become  stereotyped.     This  is  true  no  less  of  the  would-be  smart 
style  of  some  professional  journalists  than  of  the  trite  phrases  of 
the  country  newspaper  or  the  obsolete  slang  of  the  back  streets. 
It  is  a  good  plan  for  every  college  freshman  to  keep  two  lists  of 
words,  adding  to  them  frequently  as  he  reads  and  writes:  a  list 
of  good  new  words  which  he  intends  to  use  as  occasion  may  arise, 
and  another  list  of  words  which  he  fmds  himself  using  too  much. 
He  will  fmd  it  easier  to  compile  this  latter  list  for  his  friends,  or 
even  for  his  professors,  than  for  himself;  but  it  will  afford  him 


WORDS  287 

more  education,  though  perhaps  less  amusement,  if  he  confines 
it  to  his  own  verbal  excesses.  In  this  connection  a  little  book 
called  Are  You  a  Broniidef  by  Gelett  Burgess,  will  do  much  to 
bring  about  a  proper  humiUty  among  writers  too  well  satisfied 
with  themselves. 

202.  Enlarging  ones  vocabiilary.  Every  educated  person 
has  four  concentric  vocabularies :  ( i )  a  colloquial  vocabulary  of  a 
few  hundred  words,  sufficient  for  ordinary  daily  conversation; 
(2)  a  somewhat  larger  speaking  vocabulary,  including  part  of 
I  and  many  other  words,  used  in  formal  speaking,  such  as 
classroom  recitation  and  debates;  (3)  a  still  larger  writing 
vocabulary,  employed  in  formal  composition,  including  all  of  2 
and  hundreds  of  other  words  never  uttered;  (4)  a  very  much 
larger  list,  including  all  of  i,  2,  and  3,  and  thousands  of  other 
words,  which  are  understood  when  they  are  met  with  in  books, 
but  are  never  spoken  or  written.  These  words  in  the  fourth 
class,  outside  of  the  third,  should,  perhaps,  not  be  called  a 
vocabulary,  since  they  are  never  used  as  a  means  of  self- 
expression,  but  only  as  a  means  of  receiving  impressions. 

Now  we  never  under  ordinary  conditions  transfer  a  word  di- 
rectly from  4  to  i;  that  is,  we  never  introduce  suddenly  into 
conversation  a  word  hitherto  known  only  as  a  book-word. 
Moreover,  we  do  not  often  bring  such  words  directly  into 
formal  speaking  (2)  without  having  first  written  them  several 
times  by  deliberate  choice  (3)  There  are  psychological  reasons 
for  this  slow  and  indirect  method  of  putting  words  to  use, 
which  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  here.  The  fact  will  be 
evident  to  any  one  upon  reflection.  The  order  of  steps  in  en- 
larging one's  vocabulary  is  to  add  words  to  4  by  reading  and 
the  use  of  the  dictionary;  to  transfer  words  from  4  to  3  by 
introducing  them  deliberately  in  the  revision  of  written  compo- 
sition as  occasion  may  arise,  and  to  repeat  such  use  until  the 
word  comes  naturally  to  the  pen.  Then,  and  not  until  then, 
will  a  new  word  come  naturally  to  the  tongue  in  formal  speak- 


288  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

ing  (2);  and  later,  or  not  at  all,  according  to  the  nature  of  it, 
will  make  its  way  into  familiar  talk  (i). 

There  are  two  points,  then,  at  which  the  increase  of  vocabu- 
lary is  wholly  within  our  deliberate  control:  the  addition  of 
words  to  4  from  without,  and  the  transfer  of  words  from  4  to 
3  in  the  revision  of  written  work.  At  a  third  point  deliberate 
transfer  is  possible  within  narrow  limits,  the  uttering  for  the 
first  time  in  formal  speaking  (2)  of  a  word  already  used  several 
times  in  writing.  For  formal  speaking  requires  a  certain  de- 
gree of  seK-consciousness,  an  attention  to  what  one  is  saying 
and  how  one  is  saying  it,  so  that  the  slight  hesitation  or  shy- 
ness mseparable  from  the  use  of  new  words  is  not  serious.  Still, 
this  transfer  from  the  writing  to  the  speaking  vocabulary  most 
often  comes  about  automatically.  A  man  has  written  adequate 
in  his  themes  and  notebooks  for  a  month  or  two,  whenever  it 
happened  to  be  a  better  word  than  enough  or  sufficient.  Some 
day  it  slips  off  his  tongue  before  he  knows  it,  in  some  such  phrase 
as  "adequate  conception."  It  has  been  transferred  from  one 
part  of  his  brain  to  another,  from  the  book-words  to  the  talk- 
words.  It  is  no  longer  a  liabiUty  but  an  asset:  not  a  debt  he 
owes  to  the  dictionary,  but  a  credit  balance  on  which  he  can 
draw  when  he  chooses. 

Evidently  therefore  the  solution  of  the  whole  problem  lies  in 
using  new  words  in  that  kind  of  writing  and  speaking  which 
demands  the  widest  range  of  expression.  Just  as  the  scientific 
student  soon  finds  himself  using  technical  terms  freely  in  ordi- 
nary talk,  so  any  student  will  find  himself  master  of  new  verbs 
and  adjectives  and  abstract  nouns  every  month  if  he  slips  them 
in  first  when  he  is  writing  themes,  with  nobody  looking  on.  A 
fear  of  what  people  will  say  need  not  then  deter  him,  as  it  will 
if  he  tries  to  introduce  new  words  first  into  his  talking.  Men 
rightly  distrust  artificial  or  afYected  conversation.  It  is  a 
healthy  instinct  that  leads  young  peopk  to  smile  at  one  who  is 
evidently ' 'showing  oil "  his  new  dictionary  words  in  conversation. 


WORDS  289 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  Chapter  X,  colloquial  Enghsh 
naturally  avoids  hundreds  of  standard  English  words,  and  pur- 
posely seeks  direct,  homely,  racy  modes  of  expression.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  an  irrational  and  stupid  tradition  of  young 
people  that  would  restrict  the  total  speaking  vocabulary  to  the 
colloquial  range:  reducing  vocabulary  2  to  the  diameter  of  vo- 
cabulary I.  The  recitation,  the  classroom  report  or  dissertation 
or  criticism,  and  particularly  the  debate,  are  the  college  student's 
opportunities  to  acquire  the  full  speaking  vocabulary  of  the 
educated  world;  opportunities  which  he  will  never  again  have 
presented  to  him  with  so  little  embarrassment  and  so  generous 
encouragement  in  the  exercise  of  them.  The  whole  trend  of 
modern  psychology  and  education  confirms  the  contention  here 
made,  that  ideas  are  not  truly  ideas  until  they  are  put  into 
words;  and  that  words  are  not  truly  words  while  they  remain 
black  marks  in  print,  but  become  such  in  the  fullest  sense 
when  they  are  first  pen-strokes  on  paper  and  then  voice-sounds 
in  speech.     Nothing  is  really  ours  until  we  use  it. 

The  best  popular  book  on  word-history  for  collateral  reading 
is  Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English  Speech,  by  Greenough 
and  Kittredge.  The  best  essay  on  the  enlargement  of  vocabu- 
lary is  SelJ-CuUivation  in  English,  by  George  Herbert  Palmer. 
This  latter  book  should  be  read  by  every  student  of  English. 
A  useful  exercise  would  be  to  go  through  any  piece  of  good 
English  prose,  such  as  Professor  Palmer's  essay  itself,  writing 
down  every  word  which  the  student  is  aware  he  never  uses 
either  in  speaking  or  in  writing.  Such  a  list,  if  added  to  from 
time  to  time,  would  give  a  suitable  beginning  for  the  enlargement 
of  one's  writing  vocabulary  in  future  composition  work. 

The  principal  thing  to  note  about  this  chapter  on  words  is 
that,  unlike  the  rest  of  the  book,  it  is  only  the  beginning  of  a 
kind  of  self-cultivation  which  cannot  be  finished  in  one  year  or 
four,  but  will  go  on  as  long  as  the  mind  continues  to  grow. 


290  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  ^f).  Studysectionsi75-i8o.  Collect  a  list  of  twenty  words 
in  common  but  not  in  good  usage. 

Assignment  50.  Study  sections  181-187.  Look  up  in  an  imabridged 
dictionary  the  etymologies  of  all  the  italicized  words  in  sections  185-187. 

Assignment  51.  Study  sections  188  and  189.  Prepare  for  a  quiz  on 
EngUsh  words  derived  from  Latin  words  in  this  list. 

Assignment  52.  Study  section  190.  Prepare  for  a  quiz  on  English  words 
derived  from  the  Greek  words  in  this  Ust. 

Assignment  53.  Study  sections  191-192.  Examine  in  a  dictionary  the 
definitions  of  ten  or  more  words  chosen  at  random  from  the  text  of  this 
chapter  (such  words  as  paraphrase,  detention,  metaphorically,  environment, 
impromptu),  in  order  to  learn  how  to  frame  a  satisfactory  definition  of  a  word 
of  which  the  meaning  is  known.  This  work  is  in  preparation  for  an  oral 
or  written  test  in  the  class  consisting  of  definitions  of  familiar  words. 

Assignment  54.  Study  sections  193-196.  Learn  the  synonyms  for  the 
first  twenty-five  words  in  the  fist  in  section  197. 

Assignment  55.  Study  the  synonyms  for  words  numbered  26-75  ^^ 
section  197.  Be  prepared  to  illustrate  the  proper  use  of  these  synonyms  by 
making  sentences  containing  them. 

Assignment  56.  Read  section  198.  Study  the  synonyms  numbered  76- 
100  in  section  197,  and  select  antonyms  for  as  many  as  possible  of  the  words 
in  section  197. 

Assignment  57.  Study  sections  199-202.  Make  a  list  of  commonly 
overworked  words. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE    INTERPRETATION    OF   LITERATURE 

203.  Writing  about  books.  One  of  the  noblest  uses  of 
human  speech  is  to  praise  with  discrimination,  and  another  is  to 
share  one's  discoveries.  This,  for  the  student,  is  what  must  pass 
for  criticism.  With  regard  to  the  word  criticism  there  exists  a 
notable  confusion  of  ideas,  even  since  Matthew  Arnold's  patient 
endeavor  to  define  it  once  and  for  all.  Nothing  can  be  more 
hypocritical  than  for  young  people  who  are  still  in  the  rudiments 
of  literature  to  be  forced  into  pronouncing  objective  judgments 
as  to  the  worth  of  literature.  Students  instinctively  feel  this, 
and  resent  all  attempts  to  get  them  to  pretend  a  knowledge  which 
they  do  not  possess.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  beginning  to 
be  dissatisfied  with  judging  books  and  other  works  of  art  on  the 
ground  of  mere  impulsive  like  or  dislike.  It  is  time,  then,  for 
something  less  ambitious  than  criticism,  and  more  thoughtful 
than  caprice. 

Now  criticism,  whatever  else  it  does,  must  at  least  interpret. 
Its  judgment  of  value  is  based  on  interpretation.  A  book  review 
for  example,  must  first  tell  us  what  the  book  is  about,  what  the 
author  has  tried  to  do.  For  the  time  being  the  critic  stands 
in  the  position  of  a  neutral,  or  a  friend,  in  his  endeavor  to 
make  known  what  the  writer  has  attempted.  Only  by  special 
training  is  a  critic  really  fitted  to  go  much  beyond  that  point, 
and  to  show  wherein  the  attempt  has  succeeded,  and  wherein 
it  has  failed  —  to  estimate  its  value  for  science,  or  history,  or 
literature,  or  whatever  field  it  seeks  to  enrich.  True  criticism 
is  an  attempt  to  help  people  to  understand  why  a  thing  is 
good,  and  to  profit  by  its  goodness;  or  to  show  them  why  it 

291 


292  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

is  bad,  and  to  guard  them  against  its  badness.  The  expert 
criticism  that  has  value  for  society  is  beyond  our  reach  to 
produce;  but  the  honest  interpretation  of  the  reader  who  likes 
a  book,  and  knows  why  he  likes  it,  is  within  the  reach  of  all. 
It  is  simple,  making  no  pretense;  modest,  demanding  no  assent. 
The  interpreter's  chief  concern  is  not  that  others  shall  agree  with 
his  opinion,  but  that  they  shall  be  attracted  to  read  and  to  judge 
for  themselves. 

204.  The  imaginary  audience.  Let  the  student  choose  from 
his  recent  reading  a  novel,  a  book  of  short  stories  or  essays, 
a  play  or  group  of  plays,  a  biography,  and  prepare  to  formulate 
his  ideas  for  the  writing  of  an  interpretation.  Whether  read 
during  the  college  year  or  previously,  the  book  must  be  one 
that  he  admires;  one  that  is  worth  re-reading,  worth  buying. 
It  must  be  the  kind  of  book  concerning  which  one  keeps  thinking 
"Jim  would  like  this,"  or  "I  wonder  if  Bill  ever  read  this  book 
—  it's  just  his  style. "  Remember  Jim  and  Bill  in  the  interpreta- 
tion; let  their  mild,  well-bred  interest,  or  their  incredulous  smiles, 
or  their  deep-rooted  antipathy  to  this  particular  kind  of  book, 
spur  the  writer  to  his  best  efforts.  How  can  it  be  that  a  biog- 
raphy should  be  interesting?  they  wearily  inquire.  Why  read 
a  problem  play?  Are  there  not  enough  problems  without  hunting 
them  up  in  books?  How  can  a  professional  jester  say  anything 
wise?  "Is  Saul  also  among  the  prophets?"  Good  interpreta- 
tion meets  such  opposition  not  with  a  weak  "I  like  it  anyhow," 
but  with  a  defense  of  the  faith,  and  a  counter-attack  upon  the 
tyranny  of  secondhand  opinions.  The  interpreter  is  not  a 
partisan  of  any  particular  belief  of  his  own,  but  a  partisan  of  the 
spirit  of  open-mindedness  against  the  stolid  Philistinism  of 
brains  but  half  awake.  He  will  rouse  such  people  with  his 
enthusiasm  if  he  can;  but  if  that  fails,  he  will  stick  a  pin  in 
them,  just  to  see  them  jump.  Anything  but  the  yawns  of 
contented  ignorance! 

205.  The  harmless  pretense  of  discovery.     In  this  happy 


THE   INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE     293 

mood,  not  unmixed  with  mischief,  let  us  see  where  to  begin  the 
task  of  interpretation.  We  are  not  ashamed  to  admit  that  our 
enthusiasm  is  naive,  the  freshness  of  knowledge  newly  won  in 
fields  familiar  to  the  learned  world.  The  book  we  read  for  the 
first  time  last  month,  so  far  from  being  our  discovery,  has  be- 
guiled a  thousand  readers  before  our  day  into  the  pleasing  illu- 
sions of  the  pioneer;  but  what  of  that?  For  us,  and  for  our 
audience,  it  is  new.  We,  thank  heaven,  are  not  yet  old  enough 
to  apologize  for  our  admirations.  We  know  no  better  than  to 
suppose  that  every  book  is  a  new  book  until  we  have  read  it. 
Each  generation  must  launch  its  own  Argosies,  and  find  its 
own  Hesperides.  The  Golden  Hind  of  youth  is  the  one  im- 
mortal ship.  She  carries  a  new  crew  on  every  voyage;  and  she 
will  be  sailing  still  when  every  port  is  charted,  and  the  gay 
young  sailors  can  discover  nothing  but  themselves.  Youth 
makes  us  bad  judges  but  excellent  partisans.  In  middle  age, 
men  are  prone  to  laugh  at  their  fellow  who  is  always  full  of  the 
book  he  has  read  last;  but  in  youth  he  is  welcome  in  any  com- 
pany if  he  knows  how  to  interpret  his  praise. 

Let  the  chosen  book,  then,  be  an  old  book  hitherto  unknown 
or  a  new  book  still  on  trial  before  the  world.  Lamb's  letters, 
or  the  letters  of  William  James;  the  life  of  an  Elizabethan 
voyager,  or  the  logbook  of  a  modern  Arctic  explorer;  a  novel 
of  Jane  x\usten,  or  of  William  de  Morgan,  or  Joseph  Conrad; 
the  poems  of  Robert  Herrick,  or  of  Alfred  Noyes;  Walton's 
Compleat  Angler,  or  a  volume  by  John  Burroughs,  or  John 
Muir:  anything  that  will  brighten  a  cloudy  day,  or  beguile 
a  lonely  night,  or  people  an  empty  house  with  the  figures  of 
mystery  and  fancy.  Over  the  choice  there  need  be  little 
lingering,  for  a  man  may  choose  pretty  much  what  he  likes. 
He  is  only  to  be  sure  that  he  does  like  it,  and  willing  to  tell 
other  people  why. 

206.  The  three  questions  to  be  answered.  There  are  three 
questions  that  must  always  be  asked  and  answered  by  a  critic: 


294  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

(i)  What  did  the  author  attempt? 

(2)  How  well  did  he  accomphsh  it? 

(3)  What  is  the  value  of  his  work  for  his  age  and  for  ours? 
It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  to  .answer  adequately 

the  second  of  these  questions  calls  for  more  learning  than  most 
of  us  possess.  The  best  that  can  ordinarily  be  done  in  bring- 
ing a  book  to  the  attention  of  those  who  do  not  know  it  is  to 
show  what  the  book  stands  for,  and  what  it  signifies  to  us:  to 
interpret  it,  and  to  appreciate  it.  Of  the  three  tasks  of  criti- 
cism, (i)  fair  interpretation,  (2)  impartial  judgment,  and  (3) 
personal  appreciation,  the  first  is  a  matter  of  study,  the  second 
of  taste,  and  the  third  of  sympathy.  By  study  we  find  out 
what  situation  confronted  the  author,  such  as  the  social  abuses 
which  stimulated  Dickens  and  Charles  Reade,  and  the  end  he 
had  in  view.  By  taste,  which  is  an  educated  judgment  based 
on  permanent  standards,  we  rank  his  work  in  relation  to  that  of 
his  contemporaries  and  of  other  ages  —  a  difficult  task,  from 
which  it  is  hard  to  separate  personal  prejudice.  By  sympathy, 
a  feeling  quite  as  much  as  an  idea,  we  voice  the  desire  to  see  a 
good  thing  more  widely  known. 

To  interpret  a  book  does  not  mean  to  write  a  biographical 
sketch  of  the  author  or  a  condensed  summary  of  his  narrative. 
Both  his  life  and  his  story  • —  if  it  be  a  story  —  are  to  be  used, 
but  not  rehearsed  for  their  own  sake.  The  questions  to  be 
answered  under  the  first  head  are  such  as  these : 

207.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  the  age.  What  kind 
of  age  did  the  author  live  in?  What  were  its  dominant  inter- 
ests in  poHtics,  industry,  morals,  manners,  religion,  or  other 
human  concerns?  Illustrations:  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress 
is  to  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  seventeenth  century  Non- 
conformist religion,  Bedford  jail.  Restoration  corruption,  and  so 
on.  Bret  Harte's  stories  require  some  knowledge  of  old  days 
in  California. 

208.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  the  author's  life.     What 


THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE     295 

is  there  in  the  author's  life  that  throws  hght  on  the  subject 
of  his  book?  Illustrations:  Sartor  Resarlus  demands  for  its 
understanding  a  knowledge  of  Carlyle's  early  intellectual 
and  moral  struggles.  David  Copperjield  is  full  of  autobiog- 
raphy. Bacon's  Essays  are  a  strange  commentary  on  his 
career.  Thomas  Hardy's  early  training  as  an  architect  may  be 
traced  in  many  of  his  stories.  W.  H.  Hudson's  youth  in  South 
America,  and  his  profession  as  an  ornithologist,  help  to  interpret 
all  his  books. 

209.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  literary  tendencies. 
What  literary  tendencies  were  dominant  when  the  book  was 
written,  to  which  it  owed  its  origin,  or  against  which  it  was  a 
protest?  Illustrations:  Almost  any  contemporary  social  prob- 
lem play  may  be  traced  back  to  Ibsen.  Many  historical 
romances  of  the  present  time  belong  to  the  romantic  revival 
represented  by  Stevenson.  The  realists  own  their  indebtedness 
to  Balzac.  Contemporary  verse  owes  much  to  France  and  to 
the  Far  East. 

210.  Interpretation  in  the  light  of  the  author's  aim.  If 
the  book  is  but  slightly  affected  by  contemporary  problems, 
the  author's  life,  or  prevalent  literary  fashions,  what  is  the 
task  the  author  seems  to  have  set  before  himself?  Illustra- 
tions: George  Eliot's  Adam  Bcde  may  be  interpreted  as  an 
attempt  to  show  the  far-reaching  and  irrevocable  consequences 
of  a  moral  choice  by  a  moral  being;  Hardy's  novels  (almost 
any  of  them)  as  an  attempt  to  show  the  far-reaching  conse- 
quences of  moral  accidents  in  a  world  of  perverse  destiny.  We 
may  consider  Thackeray's  Pendennis  and  The  Ncwcomes,  Dick- 
ens's Great  Expectations,  Meredith's  The  Ordeal  of  Richard 
Feverel,  as  studies  of  youthful  selfishness,  blindness,  and  folly; 
Blackmore's  Lorna  Doone,  Black's  A  Princess  of  Thide,  as 
romances  which  reflect  by  means  of  a  love  story  the  conditions 
of  a  past  age,  or  a  remote  and  picturesque  region  or  country. 

211.  Summary  of  the  story  merely  incidental.     In  the  course 


296  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

of  an  interpretation  of  a  novel,  a  play,  or  a  narrative  poem 
like  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden  or  Masefield's  The  Dauber,  the 
writer  will  necessarily  sum  up  in  a  few  sentences  the  outline 
of  the  plot,  but  he  will  do  this  as  a  means,  not  as  an  end.  He 
will  use  it  to  show  how  realistic  the  author  is,  by  pointing  out 
the  homely  kind  of  story  of  which  he  has  made  use;  or  how 
pessimistic  he  is,  by  instancing  two  or  three  of  the  unnecessary 
factors  in  his  tragedy.  No  attempt  should  be  made  really  to 
tell  the  story,  to  sum  up  the  substance  of  essays,  or  to  condense 
the  biographical  facts  of  a  "life  and  letters."  Experience  shows 
that  this  is  not  the  way  to  interest  people  in  reading  a  book. 
There  is  nothing  duller  than  a  condensed  summary.  It  has  its 
place  in  notebooks  and  other  personal  memoranda,  but  not  in 
the  written  or  spoken  appreciation  of  literature.  The  retelling 
of  a  story  in  suificient  detail  to  reflect  something  of  its  vitality 
and  humor  or  pathos  is  a  totally  different  thing,  which  will  be 
studied  in  Chapter  XV.  In  the  present  task,  which  is  exposi- 
tory, no  summary  of  narrative  should  extend  beyond  a  para- 
graph. Even  in  that  paragraph  it  is  usually  best  to  avoid  the 
tedious  historical  present  tense,  adhering  to  the  never  monotonous 
past  tense  of  all  good  narrative.  Plays  are  sometimes  best  sum- 
marized in  the  present  tense,  novels  and  stories  rarely  or  never. 
212.  Is  the  book  well  written?  We  come  now  to  the  second 
main  question:  How  well  has  the  author  accomplished  the 
task  which  he  attempted?  While  the  student  can  contribute 
no  answer  which  will  have  real  worth  as  criticism,  he  can  and 
should  meet  such  inquiries  as  the  following: 

1.  Does  the  book  stick  to  the  point?  Is  the  evident  pur- 
pose of  it  obscured  by  a  lack  of  unity?  At  the  end  of  the 
book  does  the  reader  have  a  distinct  impression  of  the  domi- 
nant idea  or  mood  for  which  it  stands? 

2.  Has  the  book  good  proportion?  Is  there  any  considerable 
part  of  it  which  occupies  too  much  space  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  purpose,  and  the  maintenance  of  interest? 


THE   INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE     297 

3.  In  the  case  of  narrative,  are  the  descriptions  vivid,  the 
conversations  natural,  and  the  characters  Kfehke? 

4.  So  far  as  the  student  is  able  to  compare  the  book  with 
others  by  the  same  author,  or  with  books  by  his  contemporaries, 
or  with  similar  works  of  other  periods,  how  does  it  rank  in 
such  a  comparison? 

These  are  questions  to  which  every  intelligent  reader  can 
upon  reflection  make  some  kind  of  answer.  They  do  not  go 
very  far  toward  fixing  an  author's  real  rank,  but  they  help  to 
form  a  definite  link  between  questions  i  and  3  (section  206) :  to 
force  us  to  decide  in  our  own  minds  why  we  think  a  book  is 
worth  while.  The  third  step  is  impossible  without  the  first, 
and  of  slight  value  without  the  second.  When  those  have  been 
attempted,  however  imperfectly,  we  may  ask  two  more  questions. 

213.  Historical  significance.  What  historical  importance 
has  such  an  attempt  as  this  author's,  achieved  with  such  a  degree 
of  success,  in  changing  the  life  and  thought  of  his  time?  Illus- 
trations: Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  a  great  idea  crudely  executed, 
had,  because  of  the  circumstances  of  the  age,  a  tremendous 
effect  upon  public  sentiment.  It  is  thus  historically  important, 
though  of  little  significance  for  literature.  Byron's  English 
Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers,  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers,  Poe's  The 
Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue  and  The  Gold  Bug,  all  have  historical 
as  well  as  literary  significance.  The  question  is,  did  the  book 
stop  an  old  abuse,  or  begin  a  new  type?  Did  it  mark  the  begin- 
ning, the  climax,  or  the  end  of  any  significant  stage  in  human 
progress?  If  so,  it  has  value  for  students,  and  may  be  recom- 
mended to  their  attention.  For  the  student  is  supposed  to  be 
a  person  interested  in  tracing  the  beginnings  of  things.  Educa- 
tion in  its  higher  stages  depends  very  largely  upon  this  interest  in 
origins.  Felix  qui  potuit  reruni  cognoscere  causas.  Books  which 
one  would  never  think  of  bringing  before  a  club  of  business  men, 
or  an  audience  of  working  girls,  have  value  for  the  audience  which 
is  pledged  to  at  least  four  years  of  intellectual  life. 


298  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

214.  The  final  question  of  personal  appeal.  The  other  and 
final  question  is,  What  value  has  this  book  for  us?  This  is  the 
substitution  of  judgment  for  impulse,  the  forming  of  a  de- 
liberate estimate,  the  voicing  of  thoughtful  praise,  the  appeal 
of  an  intelligent  sympathy.  Does  the  book  make  goodness 
more  compelling,  and  weakness  more  base?  Does  it  radiate 
cheer,  or  teem  with  fascinating  mystery?  Do  we  learn  in  its 
pages  how  to  read  character,  how  to  penetrate  the  dullness  of 
the  good,  and  the  false  brilliancy  of  evil?  Or  is  it  just  a  good 
book  to  transport  one  out  of  every  day  into  a  world  where 
weariness  and  satiety  are  unknown,  and  the  zest  of  youth  is 
inexhaustible? 

Here  is  where  we  must  remember  the  imaginary  reader  of  the 
essay.  He  is  to  read  this  book,  and  we  must  show  cause  why 
he  cannot  afford  to  miss  it.  He  is  a  creature  of  inertia,  prejudice, 
and  a  singular  blindness  to  his  own  best  interests.  Therefore 
it  is  our  task  to  rouse  his  curiosity,  placate  his  instinctive 
resentment  against  those  who  would  improve  him,  and  kindle 
in  him  the  spark  of  intellectual  ambition.  To  do  that  we 
must  study  the  book,  study  the  causes  of  our  likes  and  dislikes, 
and  study  the  reader.  Viewed  in  this  light,  the  interpre- 
tation of  literature  becomes  tangible  even  to  the  beginner. 

215.  The  interpretation  of  literature  to  oneself.  All  that 
has  been  said  in  this  chapter  applies  to  the  interpretation  to 
another  mind  of  literature  already  known  and  valued  by  one- 
self. There  is  another  sense  in  which  the  interpretation  of 
literature  means  the  reader's  own  approach  to  literature,  his 
own  apprehension  of  its  meaning  and  value.  A  most  valuable 
guide  in  this  field  is  Professor  C.  Alphonso  Smith's  little  book 
entitled  What  Can  Literature  Do  for  Me?  It  will  be  evident 
that  there  is  no  time  or  place  in  a  first  course  in  composition 
for  much  study  of  literature,  except  in  the  form  of  specimens 
of  literary  types.  College  courses  in  the  history  of  literature 
take  up  those  principles  of  interpretation  of  poetry,  drama,  and 


THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  LITERATURE     299 

fiction  upon  which  our  study  of  these  artistic  forms  is  based. 
In  such  courses  the  application  of  the  questions  above  suggested 
is  just  as  appropriate  as  in  forming  one's  estimate  of  a  familiar 
book  for  purposes  of  composition.  Nothing  can  be  more  im- 
portant for  a  student  than  to  learn  to  ask  instantly  of  any  work 
of  art  —  a  picture,  a  statue,  a  building,  as  well  as  a  novel  or  a 
play:  What  was  the  artist's  design?  Why  did  he  choose  it? 
How  near  did  he  come  to  realizing  it?  It  is  so  that  we  judge 
men  when  we  contemplate  their  lives;  so  that  we  estimate  the 
success  of  a  system  of  government,  or  an  educational  method, 
or  a  plan  for  city  parks  and  boulevards,  or  a  mechanical  inven- 
tion, or  any  other  subject  of  human  judgment. 

What  Was  He  Aiming  At? 
How  Near  Did  He  Come  To  It? 
How  Well  Do  I  Like  It? 

These  are  the  questions,  of  which  the  third  is  most  prominent 
on  the  lips  of  the  beginner,  the  first  most  interesting  to  the 
student,  and  the  second  most  appropriate  to  the  enlightened 
and  generous  critic. 

"Let  such  teach  others  who  themselves  excel, 
And  censure  freely  who  have  written  well." 

If  culture  is  an  endeavor  "to  know  the  best  that  is  known 
and  thought  in  the  world,"  those  who  aim  to  acquire  culture 
will  need  to  ask  themselves  far  more  often  "What  is  the  best?" 
and  "Why  is  it  the  best?"  than  "Does  it  (at  the  present  back- 
ward stage  of  my  development)  appeal  to  me?"  It  is  our 
business  to  learn  to  know  the  best;  the  liking  will  take  care 
of  itself.  Culture  rests  on  knowledge,  not  on  caprice.  We 
grow  by  reaching  beyond  our  height.  Something  tells  us  there 
is  more  higher  up,  and  we  climb.     This  cUmbing  is  education. 


300  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  58.  Read  Chapter  XIII.  Select  from  your  reading  of  the 
past  year  a  book  which  you  have  thoroughly  enjoyed,  and  plan  for  the 
writing  of  an  essaj'  about  it  of  the  sort  explained  in  the  chapter.  Begin 
writing  the  essay. 

Assignment  59.     Finish  and  copy  the  book  review,  and  hand  it  in. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
DESCRIPTION 

216.  Two  kinds  of  description.  Description  in  its  widest 
sense  includes  any  account  of  the  appearance  of  an  object.  The 
term  is  not  so  used  in  rhetoric.  A  mail-order  catalogue  de- 
scribes a  cream  separator,  a  newspaper  advertisement  describes 
a  house  for  sale,  a  police  circular  describes  a  missing  man,  by 
the  enumeration  of  details  for  a  practical  purpose.  The  business 
men  wish  to  sell  the  articles  described  in  their  advertising 
matter;  the  police  wish  to  find  the  missing  bank  clerk.  Their 
only  aim  is  clearness,  and  their  method  is  really  exposition.  A 
totally  different  kind  of  description,  to  which  the  name  is  ex- 
clusively applied  in  rhetoric,  is  the  art  of  suggesting  mental 
images  by  the  use  of  words  with  the  purpose  of  giving  pleasure. 

When  the  novelist  describes  a  corner  grocery  where  village 
pohticians  congregate,  he  aims  to  remind  us  of  country  stores 
where  we  have  watched  just  such  loafers  sitting  around  the 
stove.  He  is  not  selling  groceries,  or  stoves,  or  politicians; 
he  is  writing  fiction.  By  his  humor,  his  reaHsm,  or  it  may  be 
his  romantic  sentiment,  he  hopes  to  beguile  us  into  believing 
that  his  particular  Sam  or  Jerry  is  a  real  person.  He  helps  us 
to  see  these  people  in  their  favorite  haunt,  in  order  that  when 
we  meet  them  again  elsewhere  we  shall  instinctively  nod  ac- 
quaintance. A  professional  charity  worker  describes  a  family 
for  the  confidential  records  of  the  bureau  in  business-like  terms 
of  age,  sex,  occupation,  habits,  degree  of  poverty  and  shiftless- 
ness,  and  so  forth.  The  minister,  pleading  for  sympathy  with 
the  poor,  or  the  short-story  writer,  will  take  the  same  family 
and  make  us  realize  them  in  one  way  or  another  —  like,  or  dis- 

301 


302  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

like.  A  florist's  catalogue  describes  spring  flowers  with  delib- 
erate intent  to  lure  unwary  citizens  into  buying  more  bulbs 
than  they  really  need.  The  poet  gives  us,  without  money  and 
without  price,  the 

"Daffodils 

That  come  before  the  swallow  dares,  and  take 

The  winds  of  March  with  beauty." 

A  street-car  expert  counts  the  crowds  waiting  for  a  cross- 
town  car  in  order  to  test  the  validity  of  the  public  demand  for 
better  service.  A  student  of  human  nature  will  stand  by  his 
side  noting  how  different  people  in  the  crowd  behave  under 
provocation,  some  frowning,  some  joking,  some  grumbling,  some 
swearing.  The  written  reports  of  the  two  observers  will  differ 
rather  widely. 

217.  Literary  description  aims  to  commvinicate  feeling.  In 
every  such  case  the  main  purpose  of  the  man  who  has  some- 
thing to  sell,  something  to  accomplish,  is  to  communicate  facts 
as  clearly  and  as  forcibly  as  possible.  The  aim  of  the  writer  or 
the  student  of  nature  or  human  nature  is  to  communicate  inter- 
est, feeling,  sympathy,  pleasure.  Compare  a  geologist's  account 
of  a  river  gorge  with  that  of  an  artist;  contrast  the  notebook 
description  of  a  laboratory  experiment  in  spectrum  analysis  with 
apoet's  description  of  a  rainbow.  Some  of  the  best  nature  books 
hke  those  of  John  Burroughs  and  Thoreau  combine  accurate 
scientific  observation  and  the  art  of  literary  suggestion.  The 
two  kinds  of  descriptive  writing,  in  rare  instances,  run  together; 
but  ordinarily  they  are  widely  separated  in  purpose  and  method. 
Expository  description  has  already  been  practiced  in  connection 
with  the  early  chapters,  and  will  continue  to  be  practiced  in 
the  student's  scientific  studies  throughout  his  course.  Its  prin- 
ciples are  those  of  exposition,  of  which  it  forms  a  part. 

218.  Based  on  observation,  imagination,  and  sympathy. 
Literary  descrijition,  on  the  other  hand,  belongs  to  a  totally  new 
kind  of  writing.     It  is  based  not  only  on  observation,  as  is  all 


DESCRIPTION  303 

description,  but  on  imagination  and  sympathy:  imagination, 
which  surrounds  the  things  actually  seen  with  various  associa- 
tions more  or  less  real;  and  sympathy,  which  manages  to  rouse 
the  same  associations  in  other  minds  by  skillful  choice  of  words. 
It  is  a  form  of  what  psychologists  call  suggestion:  the  deliber- 
ate attempt  of  A  to  implant  his  feeling  in  B's  mind,  not  always 
by  telhng  him  of  it,  but  by  naming  things  which  start  the  same 
train  of  reminiscence  in  his  mind. 

If  A  desires  B  to  see  mentally  a  hilly  street  in  an  old  river 
town  in  the  South,  with  its  uneven  brick  sidewalk,  cobble-stone 
pavement,  tumble-down  brick  warehouses  and  gray  stone 
blocks,  leading  down  to  the  deserted  wharf,  A  must  make  B, 
who  has  never  been  in  the  South,  think  of  such  a  street  in 
Albany,  or  Detroit,  or  Saint  Paul.  If  B  has  never  been  in  a 
river  town,  the  nearest  thing  to  it  is  a  lake  town.  B's  image 
will  be  different  from  A's,  but  it  will  be  vivid,  because  it  is  his 
own.  If  A  has  a  story  to  tell  about  Alexandria,  or  Richmond, 
or  Saint  Louis,  B  will  follow  that  story  through  the  streets 
of  his  own  northern  river-port,  allowing  as  best  he  can  for  a 
higher  temperature,  a  darker  complexion,  and  a  more  tropical 
accent. 

If  for  any  reason  a  man  desires  his  tenderfoot  friend  to  feel 
the  exhilaration  of  fried  bacon  and  coffee  beside  a  mountain 
lake  after  a  hard  day's  paddle,  he  will  partly  succeed  even  if  the 
friend  can  summon  up  nothing  more  like  the  original  than  a 
Sunday-school  picnic,  or  a  "hike"  with  the  Boy  Scouts.  When 
we  want  to  make  people  feel  that  a  certain  person  in  our  story 
is  depressed  at  the  departure  of  a  friend  or  a  sweetheart,  we  do 
not  say  so.  We  mention  that  as  the  train  pulled  out  around  the 
bend  he  stood  watching  a  Httle,  turned  suddenly,  stumbled 
over  a  mail  sack,  jammed  his  hat  down  over  his  eyes,  and  hur- 
ried off  through  the  wrong  exit  to  a  side  street. 

Nobody  can  describe  a  sawmill  without  making  the  reader 
smell  sawdust  and  hear  the  shrill  whine  of  the  big  gang  saw 


304  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

ripping  up  a  log.  It  is  not  so  much  a  question  how  that  saw- 
mill looks  as  how  it  smells  and  sounds.  The  railroad  accident 
will  get  into  the  papers  in  terms  of  so  many  cars  gone  over  the 
bank,  and  so  many  persons  killed  or  injured.  It  goes  into  a  story 
in  a  hiss  of  escaping  steam,  the  glare  of  lanterns,  a  strong  smell 
of  wet  charred  wood,  and  a  row  of  coarse  brown  blankets  with 
something  under  them  lying  beside  the  track.  The  reporter  is 
after  facts,  to  make  news;  the  story-teller  is  after  impressions, 
to  help  people  remember  happy  things  that  make  them  smile, 
or  sad  things  that  make  them  shudder.  If  they  will  but  re- 
member, he  can  tie  his  story  to  theirs  so  cunningly  that  it 
will  all  seem  theirs. 

219.  The  reader's  memory  supplemented  by  imagination. 
Since  literary  description  aims  to  touch  the  secret  spring  that 
unlocks  the  doors  of  memory,  it  might  be  supposed  that  we 
can  describe  nothing  effectively  to  readers  who  have  not  seen 
something  like  it.  It  happens,  however,  that  other  people, 
like  ourselves,  have  not  only  memory  but  imagination.*  They 
can  not  merely  put  two  and  two  together,  but  they  can  imagine 
X  -\-  y.  Their  x  will  perhaps  be  imagined  from  some  a  or  b, 
already  known  to  them.  The  y,  though  entirely  unknown  in 
their  experience,  is  supplied  from  pictures  they  have  seen,  or 
books  they  have  read,  or  other  substitutes  for  experience. 
In  this  way  each  mind  builds  up  its  own  notion  of  the  several 
details  involved  in  a  description  read  or  heard;  and  in  pro- 
portion as  they  are  specific,  vivid,  and  pictorial,  the  impression 
will  be  strong.  When  we  read  of  African  jungles,  or  Arctic 
ice-floes,  or  Russian  steppes,  our  mental  pictures  are  made  up 
of  about  seventy-five  per  cent  of  travel  pictures  we  have  seen, 
and  twenty-five  per  cent  of  American  thickets,  or  river  ice- 
jams,  or  prairies,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  is  evident,  then, 
that  description  needs  to  be  adapted  to  the  reader's  experience 
and  reading  quite  as  much  as  exposition,  though  in  a  very 
different  way.     Exposition  aims  to  reach  the  point  of  contact 


DESCRIPTION  305 

with  the  reader's  intellect  through  his  logical  sense;  description 
seeks  to  reach  his  feeling  by  emotional  suggestion.  This  is 
accompUshed  (i)  by  selecting  a  few  significant  details;  (2) 
by  appealing  to  the  mental  associations  connected  with  the 
five  senses;  and  (3)  by  using  words  rich  in  connotation. 

220.  Selection  of  significant  details.  In  writing  a  description 
we  seek  to  discover  what  is  the  dominant  impression  the  scene 
has  left  upon  our  own  minds  and  to  convey  that  to  the  reader. 
Often  we  may  leave  out  everything  but  that,  and  still  succeed. 
Approaching  a  country  house  from  the  highway,  we  are  aware 
of  a  long  double  row  of  Lombardy  poplars  marking  the  grass- 
grown  lane  that  leads  past  a  red  barn  to  a  low,  rambling  white 
house  in  a  dark  hemlock  grove.  Or,  our  path  is  a  rocky,  sunny 
wagon  track  leading  past  a  tumble-down  stone  wall  to  an 
ill-smelling  stable  yard,  with  three  yellow  dogs  and  a  top- 
buggy.  If  there  is  a  rusty  harvesting  machine  standing  un- 
covered among  the  tall  burdocks,  and  thick  green  moss  on  the 
shingle  roof  of  the  kitchen,  we  remember  the  place  by  those 
signs. 

A  street  crowd  gathered  about  a  fallen  horse  really  means 
to  our  mind  the  fat  man,  with  his  hat  on  the  back  of  his  head, 
who  keeps  shouting  "Unhitch  him,"  and  the  small  boys  with 
ragged  trousers  who  are  trying  to  peep  between  the  legs  of  an 
Irish  policeman.  Many  quiet  hours  in  the  woods  are  suggested 
to  us  by  the  caw  of  an  old  crow  circling  about  the  top  of  a 
half-dead  pine  tree,  and  the  plashing  of  unseen  water  into  a 
rocky  pool.  In  scenes  of  intense  fear  we  recall  chiefly  the 
shape  of  a  jagged  rock,  or  the  color  of  a  man's  necktie,  on 
which  our  gaze  was  riveted  by  the  paralysis  of  terror.  Em- 
barrassed men  study  the  pattern  of  the  carpet  or  the  wall- 
paper. 

A  mountain  lake  stretching  away  in  a  narrow  blue  line 
between  the  hills  is  remembered  by  the  cool  breeze  that 
whitened  the  aspens  and  rippled  the  water  on  the  pebbles.    A 


3o6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

high  hght  amidst  shadows  strikes  the  eye,  such  as  the  setting 
sun  shining  on  a  cottage  window  across  the  darkening  river. 
Bright  spots  of  color,  Uke  the  red  shanty  of  a  raihoad  switch- 
man far  down  the  pale  green  valley,  focus  the  eye  and  the 
memory  alike.  Such  things  as  these  the  writer  seizes  upon, 
because  they  seized  upon  him.  A  crowd  is  symbolized,  both 
in  pictures  and  in  writing,  by  two  or  three  of  its  most  striking 
individuals  and  a  lot  of  hats.  A  landscape  is  recalled  by  its 
skyline,  a  building  or  prominent  tree  in  the  middle  distance, 
the  waving  grass  and  flowery  slopes  in  the  foreground. 

221.  Things  described  in  terms  of  persons.  A  room  is  not 
to  be  catalogued  as  if  one  were  making  an  inventory,  but  its 
dominant  impression  is  to  be  registered.  Like  anything  that 
has  to  do  with  people,  it  is  to  be  humanly  interpreted.  Has 
it  a  big  armchair  drawn  up  by  a  table,  with  a  copy  of  Life, 
and  a  French  dictionary?  Are  there  wood  ashes  on  the  hearth, 
dust  on  the  mantel,  and  smears  on  the  windowpanes?  Is  the 
rug  of  the  red  and  green  kind  that  goes  with  installment  fur- 
niture and  a  talking  machine?  Is  there  a  cat,  or  a  canary? 
Do  we  smell  onions,  or  cigarettes,  or  cabbage?  These  are  the 
things  that  really  count.  For  many  things  are  interestmg  only 
as  they  hint  at  the  character  of  the  absent  persons.  "As  well 
as  thou  canst,  guess  at  thy  neighbors,"  says  the  author  of 
Ecclesiasticus.  Judged  from  this  standpoint,  some  rooms  are 
politely  dumb;  others  fairly  shout  at  you. 

222.  Persons  described  in  terms  of  characteristic  traits.  If 
we  are  describing  a  man,  it  is  not  significant  whether  his  hair 
is  light  or  dark  brown,  but  very  important  if  it  is  red  or  curly. 
He  may  be  anywhere  between  five  feet  eight  and  five  feet 
eleven  without  comment;  but  if  he  is  five  feet  four,  or  six  feet 
two,  we  must  know  it.  We  do  not  care  how  he  parts  his  hair, 
unless  in  the  middle.  His  necktie  may  pass  if  it  is  anything 
but  bright  green  or  purple.  His  smile  is  important;  so  are 
his  little  habitual  movements  and  gestures.     Some  men  have 


I 


DESCRIPTION  307 

a  way  of  kicking  things  when  they  are  vexed.  Others  lean 
over  and  tap  you  on  the  knee  or  the  shoulder  when  they  are 
very  much  in  earnest.  Tricks  of  speech,  mannerisms,  dis- 
tinctive traits,  are  what  we  need  in  describing  persons.  For 
this  reason  it  is  very  difficult  to  describe  commonplace  people. 
The  queerer  the  subject  the  easier  it  is  to  draw  a  caricature 
that  will  pass  for  a  portrait.  In  every  case,  whatever  the 
nature  of  the  description,  it  derives  its  power  from  selection. 
The  thing  one  sees  first,  or  remembers  longest,  is  the  thing  to 
choose. 

223.  Motion  in  description.  Language  has  this  great  advan- 
tage over  ordinary  pictures,  that  it  can  directly  represent  motion. 
It  does  this,  not  as  the  moving  pictures  do,  by  a  rapid  succes- 
sion of  impressions,  but  by  using  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs 
that  represent  motion.  On  this  account  it  is  always  a  great 
help  to  vividness  in  description  if  motion  can  be  introduced. 
In  a  landscape  there  are  drifting  clouds,  trees  swaying  in  the 
wind,  birds  fluttering  low  or  soaring  high,  water  flowing;  per- 
haps a  train  thundering  by  in  the  foreground,  or  trailing  a  thin 
wreath  of  white  smoke  along  a  dark  slope  far  away.  Often  a 
road  is  best  described  as  it  is  seen  by  one  walking  or  riding 
along  it,  a  town  or  a  house  as  it  comes  gradually  into  view,  a 
stranger  as  he  trudges  up  the  front  path.  Still  life,  such  as  a 
room,  or  a  person  observed  while  not  in  action,  is  harder  partly 
because  we  lack  this  help  to  the  imagination. 

A  skillful  writer  will  often  choose  to  describe  any  scene,  if 
possible,  at  a  moment  when  there  is  the  maximum  of  motion. 
A  street  crowd  he  will  picture  as  the  policeman  is  trying  to  dis- 
perse it.  A  fire  he  will  draw  just  as  the  walls  totter  and  fall. 
The  railway  station  is  sketched  when  a  train  is  coming  in,  or 
going  out;  the  church  when  the  congregation  is  assembling  or 
leaving;  armies  on  the  march,  birds  on  the  wing,  athletes  play- 
ing the  game;  the  blacksmith  at  his  anvil,  the  painter  at  his 
easel,  the  farmer  at  the  plow,  the  hired  man  with  the  hoe. 


3o8  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

We  notice  a  man's  features  as  he  talks,  his  clothes  and  bearing' 
as  he  walks,  his  hands  when  he  gestures  with  them.  It  is 
always  better  to  say  that  he  shook  the  floor  than  that  he  was 
heavy.  If  he  drums  on  the  table  while  he  talks,  we  do  not 
need  to  be  told  that  he  is  either  nervous  or  ill-bred.  If  he 
yawns  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  we  know  he  is  lazy,  or 
has  been  up  late.  Motion  tells  us  many  things,  and  verbs  of 
motion  save  many  words  of  other  sorts. 

224.  Color-words.  Form  is  not  the  chief  visual  impression 
we  get  in  a  rapid  survey  of  any  ordinary  scene  or  object.  Color 
is  sooner  perceived,  and  longer  remembered.  It  behooves  the 
student  of  description,  therefore,  to  cultiA-ate  a  sense  of  color 
values,  and  to  fall  in  the  gaps  in  his  color  vocabulary.  There 
are  many  men  who  in  their  ordinary  speech  and  writing  dis- 
tinguish by  name  only  the  four  colors  red,  yellow,  blue,  and  green 
with  one  or  two  tints,  such  as  pink,  one  or  two  shades,  such 
as  naxy  blue,  and  three  or  four  hues,  such  as  brown  and  purple. 
A  color  vocabulary  of  more  than  ten  terms  is  unusual  among 
men,  except  those  who  have  to  deal  with  colors  in  connec- 
tion with  science,  art,  or  industry.  Women,  naturally,  are 
not  so  deficient  either  in  the  discrimination  or  in  the  naming  of 
colors,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  their  taste  in  the  selection 
and  combination  of  colors  is  superior  to  that  of  men.  A  brief 
examination  of  a  chart  and  table  of  colors  in  any  work  of  refer- 
ence will  reveal  the  pitiful  poverty  of  words  to  which  most  of 
us  must  confess,  in  the  presence  of  the  scores  of  clearly  distin- 
guishable colors  observed  throughout  nature.  Why  should  we 
hesitate  in  describing  a  sunset  or  a  flower  garden  to  distinguish 
lavender,  and  violet,  and  mauve,  from  blue  and  purple?  Why 
should  we  apply  the  class  name  red  indifferently  to  scarlet,  car- 
dinal, crimson,  magenta,  and  maroon?  Why  use  the  vague 
word  gray  for  a  dozen  pale  tints  and  hues  of  blue,  green,  even 
of  pink? 

There  is  a  happy  medium  between  the  elaborate  terminology 


DESCRIPTION  309 

of  the  physicist,  the  nonsensical  nicknames  of  the  dry-goods 
stores,  and  the  practically  achromatic  speech  of  ordinary  men. 
Half  the  charm  of  mountain  scenery  in  summer  lies  in  the  color 
scale  of  its  greens,  from  the  pale  young  grain  in  the  valley  to 
the  deep  shadows  of  the  firs.  The  desert  has  its  bewildering 
browns,  the  sea  its  innumerable  blues.  Clearly,  we  cannot  name 
or  suggest  them  all  in  words,  but  we  may  at  least  recognize 
that  they  exist,  and  try  to  convey  some  hint  of  their  harmonies 
in  our  descriptions.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  a  tur- 
quoise and  a  sapphire  sky,  between  an  emerald  and  a  violet  sea. 
A  definite  study  of  the  charts  of  dealers  in  artists'  colors,  or 
even  of  paper  makers  and  paint  manufacturers,  will  open  a  new 
field  of  sense  cultivation  to  many  whose  early  education  in  this 
matter  has  been  neglected. 

225.  Taste  and  touch  in  description.  Description  has  the 
advantage  over  pictures  that  it  can  immediately  suggest  impres- 
sions of  four  other  senses  besides  the  sense  of  sight.  The 
senses  of  taste  and  touch  have  their  place  in  literary  descrip- 
tion, though  it  is  rather  limited.  Words  like  luscious  and  crisp 
and  mellow  and  juicy  awaken  responsive  sensations  of  a  pleas- 
ing sort:  they  "make  our  mouths  water,"  which  is  proper 
enough  in  describing  a  dinner.  Dickens  is  famous  for  his  frank 
delight  in  verbal  refreshments,  both  solid  and  liquid.  Charles 
Lamb,  with  his  roast  pig,  almost  transforms  pork  into  poetry. 
However,  eating  does  not  figure  very  largely  in  literature,  for 
the  obvious  reason  that  most  men  would  rather  eat  than  read; 
and  if  the  author  becomes  too  realistic,  the  reader  is  more  than 
likely  to  lay  down  the  book  and  go  out  to  lunch.  The  sense  of 
touch  gives  us  for  description  many  of  our  best  adjectives,  such 
as  silky,  velvety,  downy,  clammy,  chill,  prickly,  springy,  flinty, 
sticky,  greasy,  and  a  dozen  others,  mostly  disagreeable.  But 
taste  and  touch  are  trivial  in  literature  as  compared  with  sound 
and  smell. 

226.  Sounds  in  description.     Words  of  sound  are  rich  in  con- 


3IO  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

notation.  Whether  nouns  or  adjectives  or  verbs,  they  nearly  al- 
ways produce  the  full  effect;  they  have  high  relative  efficiency. 
A  boom  or  a  crash  loses  little  by  translation  into  speech  —  far 
less  than  sight-words  or  motion-words,  for  the  evident  reason 
that  language  itself  is  sound.  The  pattering  rain  and  the 
snickering  boy  are  heard  by  the  imagination  of  all.  When  a 
dog  yelps,  or  a  baby  squalls,  in  the  pages  of  fiction,  we  know 
just  how  it  sounded,  though  we  may  not  be  able  to  picture 
either  dog  or  baby.  If  the  dog  whined,  or  the  baby  squeaked, 
it  would  be  a  totally  different  story.  Our  language  is  full  of 
sound-words,  largely  imitative,  that  we  use  in  conversation  but 
commonly  neglect  in  writing.  Kipling  has  helped  to  bring  them 
back  into  print.  Any  writer  who  aims  at  vigor  and  originality 
of  expression  should  put  into  his  descrii)tions  those  short,  homely 
words  that  echo  all  sounds  from  a  dynamite  blast  to  the  piping 
of  a  penny  whistle.  Machinery  has  its  whir,  its  rattle,  or  hum, 
or  click,  or  clank,  or  whatever  it  may  be.  Water  tinkles,  or 
splashes,  or  drips.  Fire  crackles,  or  sputters,  or  hisses,  or  roars. 
Winds  whistle,  or  howl,  or  sigh.  Trumpets  blare.  Drums  may 
be  beaten,  or  tapped,  or  thumped,  or  bajiged,  they  may  rattle, 
or  roll,  or  boom.  Bells  jingle,  or  tinkle,  or  clang;  they  will 
ring  a  peal,  or  a  chime,  or  a  toll,  or  a  knell.  Men  may  walk 
with  a  shujfle,  or  a  tramp,  or  a  stamp.  Notice  that  in  all  these 
sound-words  there  is  present  the  idea  of  motion  also,  for  sound 
is  motion  become  audible.  The  sound-words  and  the  motion- 
words  cannot  be  separated.  Both  should  abound  in  good 
descriptive  writing. 

227.  The  magical  smell- words.  The  odors  are  unique. 
Smell-words  have  not  a  trace  of  the  imitative  element  found  in 
sound  and  motion-words.  Neither  do  they  directly,  or  chiefly, 
suggest  sense-impressions  as  such  to  the  mind,  like  the  taste- 
and  touch-words.  Their  value  is  their  powerful  control  over 
association.  Whatever  may  be  the  reason,  it  is  certain  from 
experience  that  real  odors  have  a  strange  power  to  revive  for- 


DESCRIPTION  311 

gotten  impressions,  a  stronger  power  than  sights  or  sounds. 
The  words  that  stand  for  odors  have  this  power  in  much  dimin- 
ished degree,  yet  are  an  important  resource  in  description. 
These  words  are  almost  entirely  nouns,  the  names  of  the  objects 
from  which  the  odors  arise.  No  one  can  make  a  vivid  picture 
of  docks  and  wharves  who  leaves  out  the  smell  of  tar,  and  rope, 
and  other  naval  stores.  Decaying  seaweed  and  shells  on  the 
beach ;  the  fragrance  of  balsams  in  the  woods ;  the  soft-coal  smoke 
and  heavy  oils  in  the  railroad  station;  weeds  and  fresh-cut  grass 
in  the  garden;  damp  mold  in  the  old  cellar;  warm  hemlock 
lumber  under  the  sunny  roof  of  the  attic;  soft  asphalt  in  city 
streets  in  August;  spruce-boughs  and  burning  tapers  at  Christ- 
mas; boxwood  in  the  cemetery;  sandalwood  in  the  old  trunk; 
white  roses  at  funerals;  pink  roses  at  weddings;  stale  English 
\iolets  at  the  matinee;  formalin  in  the  doctor's  office,  ether  in 
the  operating  room;  hydrogen  sulphide  along  the  low,  muddy 
banks  of  tidal  rivers ;  gasoline  everywhere  —  where  shall  we 
stop?  The  world  is  so  full  of  a  number  of  smells!  It  is  true 
that  many  of  them  are  bad,  and  those  by  common  consent 
are  barred  from  ordinary  speech  and  writing.  Yet,  many  a 
squeamish  nose,  that  detests  the  fish  market  or  the  leather 
district,  is  nevertheless  forced  by  a  whiff  of  whitefish  or  calf- 
skins to  remember  vanished  joys  and  benefits  forgot.  Coffee- 
roasting  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  in  the  wholesale  grocery 
district  is  like  a  letter  from  home.  The  perfume  of  lilacs 
intoxicates,  the  odor  of  lilies  is  full  of  dreams,  and  the  smell 
of  a  wood  fire  brings  content.  By  all  means,  then,  let  descrip- 
tion follow  the  scent  of  things.  Only  so  can  it  rouse  the  deepest 
and  most  vital  trains  of  memory  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  bring 
them  to  the  keenest  sympathy  with  the  writer's  thought. 

228.  Avoid  words  of  incongruous  connotation.  The  attempt 
to  suggest  definite  sense-impressions  in  descriptive  writing 
necessarily  leads  to  a  deliberate  search  for  vivid  words.  The 
fittest  word  is  the  word  that  not  only  denotes  the  desired  idea, 


312  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

but  connotes  or  suggests  more  than  it  actually  conveys.  It  is 
never  an  incongruous  word,  accurate  in  meaning,  but  out  of 
tune  in  feeling.  In  a  tragic  scene  describing  the  groping  of  a 
blind  man  for  the  way  out  of  a  burning  house,  or  the  flight  of 
an  imprisoned  hero  from  the  perils  which  have  threatened  him, 
we  should  never  say  that  he  "bumped  his  shins  on  a  rocking- 
chair."  Very  Kkely  he  did,  but  we  must  not  mention  it. 
Bump  and  shins  and  rocking-chair  are  good  words  for  comedy; 
in  tragedy  they  are  fatal.  We  may  say  with  impunity  that  he 
"dashed  himself  wildly  against  the  panels  of  a  heavy  door," 
but  he  must  not  "stub  his  toe  on  a  coal  hod." 

On  the  other  hand,  in  everyday  life  we  do  not  find  ladies 
"passing  their  hands  over  their  fevered  brows,"  or  "swooning," 
or  "weeping."  They  may,  if  they  feel  so  inclined,  rub  their 
aching  foreheads,  or  faint,  or  cry.  To  say  that  a  girl  has 
plump  cheeks  is  quite  proper  —  if  she  has;  but  we  should  not 
say  that  of  a  heroine  on  first  acquaintance.  It  seems  incon- 
gruous with  the  cloud  of  mystery  and  sentiment  that  is  supposed 
to  envelop  new  heroines.  The  moment  we  hear  plump,  we 
begin  to  think  that  her  name  ought  to  be  Dolly,  or  Sally,  and 
that  she  probably  has  dimples.  Reverence  and  poetic  senti- 
ment vanish  at  the  sound  of  plump.  In  fact,  there  is  no  word 
ending  in  -ump  that  is  a  whit  more  poetic  than  baked  beans. 

There  are  other  words  that  nothing  can  spoil  or  debase;  not 
poetic  words  in  themselves,  but  words  that  are  immune  from 
commonness.  Rich  in  imaginative  connotations  are  such  nouns 
as  dawn  and  twilight,  valley  and  meadow,  sea  and  sky,  river 
and  stream;  such  adjectives  as  graceful,  glad,  gleaming,  deli- 
cate, dim,  frank,  kindly,  hearty,  friendly,  generous;  in  other 
words,  our  mental  associations  with  such  words  are  all  pleas- 
ant, because  the  things  they  stand  for  are  pleasant.  Very 
different  is  the  connotation  of  such  adjectives  as  flashy,  dull, 
jolly,  frisky,  blunt,  lank,  thin.  It  is  one  thing  to  be  slender, 
and  quite  another  to  be  lank;  the  difference  is  not  in  one's 


DESCRIPTION  313 

diameter  but  in  one's  disposition.  To  call  a  person  playful  is 
different  from  saying  that  he  is  frolicsome,  and  still  farther 
from  accusing  him  of  being  frisky.  A  hearty  man  is  not  nec- 
essarily jolly. 

Differences  in  synonyms  from  the  point  of  view  of  their 
denotation  have  already  been  considered  in  Chapter  XII; 
differences  in  connotation  have  peculiar  importance  in  descrip- 
tion. Verbs  show  these  differences  as  well  as  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives. There  are  verbs  with  a  connotation  impossible  for 
serious  writing,  such  as  tumble,  scrape,  grin,  scare,  bungle, 
hop,  scrub,  sneeze.  Not  in  all  cases  is  it  the  idea  that  is  in- 
congruous, as  in  grin  and  hop  and  sneeze.  To  fall  may  be  a 
very  serious  thing,  but  to  tumble  cannot  be  taken  seriously. 
It  is  not  rude  to  point  out  that  a  person  has  erred,  or  even 
failed,  in  a  piece  of  work,  but  we  may  not  charge  him  with 
bungling  it,  unless  we  wish  to  show  our  contempt  for  his  clum- 
siness. In  writing  descriptions,  then,  we  must  take  especial 
pains  to  avoid  words  of  incongruous  connotation. 

229.  Seek  words  of  appropriate  connotation.  To  avoid 
incongruous  words  is  not  enough.  An  absence  of  jarring  notes 
does  not  make  music.  Description  must  seek  words  that  have 
positive  connotation  of  the  right  sort.  In  just  one  particular 
kind  of  public  ceremonial  it  will  be  proper  to  speak  of  pomp; 
and  in  describing  that  kind  the  word  has  peculiar  value. 
Trouble  brings  into  some  faces  sorrow,  into  others  gloom,  into 
others  grief,  or  anguish.  Each  word  has  a  double  worth,  in 
what  it  denotes  and  what  it  suggests  by  association.  Light 
shining  across  water  may  be  gleaming,  or  glittering,  or  shim- 
mering, or  quivering.     Tennyson  tells  us  that 

"The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes." 

Adjectives  like  gentle  and  tender  are  choice  words,  to  be  re- 
served for  the  rare  occasions  when  they  are  inevitable.  Many 
words  rich  in  connotation  have  been  spoiled  by  slang,  such 


314  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

as  weird.  A  scholar  hears  in  weird  the  echo  of  the  old  Norse 
fatahsm,  the  dreadful  chant  of  the  three  gray  Norns;  but  no 
one  else  hears  anything  of  the  kind.  Its  connotation  has  been 
changed;  it  has  become  trivial.  Clever  is  a  word  whose  con- 
notation changes  rapidly  from  time  to  time.  A  clever  man 
may  be  credited  with  genius,  or  charged  with  superficiality  and 
a  suspicion  of  dupUcity,  according  to  the  time  and  place  of  the 
speaker. 

Writers  and  speakers  who  seek  force  may  learn  in  description, 
as  in  no  other  species  of  composition,  the  secret  of  aptness  in 
words.  This  is  in  fact  the  chief  reason  for  assigning  practice 
in  this  kind  of  writing  to  an  entire  class.  Most  college  men 
will  never  undertake  literary  description  in  the  making  of  stories, 
but  all  of  them  will  need  in  daily  speech  the  sense  for  crispness 
and  vigor  in  words  which  is  here  most  clearly  illustrated. 
A  large  man  looms  into  view:  is  he  big,  brawny,  stout,  sturdy, 
burly,  or  (in  colloquial  speech)  "husky"?  There  is  only  one 
of  these  epithets  that  really  fits.  Is  he  dressed  roughly,  or 
rudely,  or  carelessly,  or  poorly,  or  shabbily?  Does  he  limp, 
or  shujfle,  or  slouch,  or  strut,  or  hobble,  or  sneak,  around  the 
corner?  Has  he  a  malignant  glare,  or  a  shifty  smile,  or  a  sly 
look,  or  an  ugly  leerf  In  any  case,  we  had  better  look  out 
for  the  fellow;  but  if  he  is  burly,  and  slouches,  and  leers,  it  is 
best  to  send  for  the  police.  The  sky  that  is  gray  tells  us  little 
or  nothing  about  the  weather  more  than  the  "partly  cloudy" 
of  the  forecaster;  but  if  it  is  lowering,  or  threatening,  or  inky, 
or  angry,  there  is  no  sense  in  going  out  without  an  umbrella. 
Flowers  may  be  gay,  or  brilliant,  or  dainty,  or  gorgeous,  or 
gaudy,  but  only  a  few  flowers  can  be  gorgeous,  and  none  can 
be  gaudy  except  in  false  color  combination  with  others.  For 
gaudy,  originally  meaning  Jo jow^,  has  by  one  of  the  strange 
degenerative  processes  in  word-history  come  to  signify  showy, 
flashy. 

230.     A  defense  of  deliberate  search  for  words  in  description. 


DESCRIPTION  315 

Most  of  us  feel  these  shades  of  meaning  in  words  when  we 
read  them  in  books.  In  speaking,  few  find  the  right  word  on 
the  tongue  at  the  right  time.  As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the 
chapter  on  words,  the  search  for  the  right  word  comes  naturally 
not  in  speech  but  in  writing;  and  not  in  the  writing  of  a  first 
draft,  but  in  revision  or  rewriting.  In  the  revision  of  a  written 
description  the  student  should  strike  out  every  vague  word, 
every  conventional  epithet;  every  verb  of  motion  that  does  not 
picture  the  motion,  every  noun  that  belongs  to  a  class  rather 
than  an  individual.  These  should  be  replaced  by  words  chosen 
for  their  specific  fitness  in  denotation  and  connotation,  together 
with  due  regard  for  euphony  and  rhythm.  Descriptive  writing 
is  more  deliberate,  more  self-conscious,  than  many  other  kinds. 
It  should  not  be  artificial,  but  artistic.  Spontaneity  may  give 
it  charm,  but  labor  gives  it  power. 

231.  Words  few  but  choice.  Description  is  a  more  con- 
densed kind  of  writing  than  exposition.  Economy  of  words  is 
supremely  important  in  producing  unity  of  impression.  There 
is  a  kind  of  description,  like  Ruskin's,  which  gains  a  cumulative 
power  and  beauty  from  the  multiplication  of  details;  but  the 
beginner  can  never  succeed  in  that  sort.  He  must  rather  emu- 
late the  pregnant  brevity  of  Kipling.  A  descriptive  theme  may 
well  be  sketched  out  at  first  in  some  detail,  in  order  to  give  oppor- 
tunity for  radical  pruning.  A  sentence  may  often  be  compressed 
to  a  phrase,  a  phrase  to  a  word,  and  perhaps  half  the  words  left 
out  altogether.  Length  is  not  the  test  of  merit.  Literature 
thrives  on  omissions.  The  stroke  that  cancels  is  often  the  stroke 
of  genius.     Edmund  Waller  sagely  remarks, 

"Poets  lose  half  the  praise  they  should  have  got, 
Could  it  be  known  what  they  discreetly  blot." 

Whereas  an  expository  theme  of  less  than  five  or  six  hundred 
words  is  likely  to  be  unsatisfactory,  a  descriptive  theme  will 
seldom  exceed  two  or  three  hundred,    The  re9,§on  is  obvious: 


3i6  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

exposition  unfolds  an  idea,  description  makes  a  picture.  Whether 
it  be  a  snapshot  or  a  time  exposure,  it  is  still  brief.  If  it  be  a 
time  exposure,  the  lens  may  be  stopped  down  to  a  narrow  aper- 
ture in  order  to  insure  concentration.  The  snapshot  must  have 
the  largest  stop  and  a  strong  light. 

232.  Descriptive  writing  usually  implies  a  story.  Class  prac- 
tice in  descriptive  writing  is  intended  to  develop  two  quite  dis- 
tinct powers:  the  power  to  choose  vivid,  striking  words  in  any 
kind  of  writing,  and  the  power  to  appreciate  good  description 
in  any  kind  of  reading.  A  description  is  emphatically  a  means, 
not  an  end.  Of  course  this  is  true,  in  a  sense,  of  all  writing, 
but  it  is  true  of  description  in  the  further  sense  that  a  descrip- 
tion is  seldom  complete  in  itself,  as  an  exposition  or  argument 
may  be.  This  incompleteness  does  not  take  away  from  the  in- 
terest of  descriptive  writing,  but  adds  to  it.  The  description 
is  part  of  a  story.  Pictures  of  landscape  are  to  be  thought  of 
always  as  the  possible  setting  of  a  story;  descriptions  of  per- 
sons may  be  considered  as  incidental  to  stories  in  which  those 
persons  are  actors;  descriptions  of  natural  objects  of  any  kind 
are  best  regarded  as  belonging  in  some  way  to  imaginative  or 
historical  narrative.  No  matter  how  humble  or  commonplace 
the  subject,  it  has  suggestions  for  a  plot  of  some  kind.  These 
suggestions,  without  being  defined  or  worked  out  at  this  time, 
give  atmosphere  to  the  shortest  descriptive  paragraph. 

There  is,  of  course,  a  kind  of  description  found  in  books  of 
travel  and  in  letters  which  has  no  narrative  implications;  but 
no  one  writes  good  travel  descriptions  who  does  not  think  of 
the  things  he  sees  in  terms  of  people,  of  human  life,  of  possible 
events.  Description,  in  fact,  may  be  regarded  as  only  a  part 
of  narration.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  we  study  and  prac- 
tice its  principles  before  we  take  up  the  other  branches  of  nar- 
ration, such  as  plot  and  dialogue.  Many  writers  gain  skill  and 
fehcity  in  description  which  serve  them  well  in  all  kinds  of 
composition,  though  for  lack  of  inventive  power  they  may  never 


DESCRIPTION  317 

succeed  in  complete  narration.  They  also  acquire  by  such  prac- 
tice a  new  understanding  of  the  descriptive  art  of  great  noveUsts 
and  poets,  which  adds  to  their  enjoyment  of  literature. 

233.  Exercises  in  description.  Exercises  in  description  will 
consist  of  two  or  three  hundred  words  each,  usually  one  or  two 
paragraphs  only,  containing  a  pen-picture  of  some  single  sub- 
ject. Every  theme  is  to  be  written  first  in  a  rough  draft  and 
then  revised  for  (i)  condensed  expression;  (2)  dominant  impres- 
sion; (3)  words  conveying  vivid  ideas  not  only  of  form  but  of 
color,  motion,  sound,  and,  if  appropriate,  odors  as  well;  (4) 
words  of  suitable  and  harmonious  connotation.  It  is  well  to 
test  the  revised  version  for  euphony  by  reading  it  aloud  before 
copying. 

A  wide  range  of  choice  in  subjects  is  desirable,  those  in  the 
following  list  being  only  suggestive.  There  must  be  no  confu- 
sion, however,  of  literary  description  with  the  mere  enumeration 
of  details  proper  to  exposition.  A  building  or  a  city  is  not 
described,  in  the  sense  here  intended,  by  giving  figures  of  its 
size  and  various  physical  details,  in  the  style  of  a  catalogue 
or  guidebook.  Nothing  will  be  appropriate  to  which  the  term 
"picture"  cannot  justly  be  applied.  "Can  I  imagine  how 
the  thing  looks?"  is  the  test  of  a  description.  If  it  is  void 
of  images,  it  is  not  description  at  all.  Evidently,  at  this 
stage,  no  one  should  try  to  describe  anything  he  has  not  seen. 
The  invention  of  descriptions,  built  up  out  of  separate  bits  of 
detached  experiences,  is  more  difi5cult,  and  will  be  undertaken 
under  the  head  of  narrative  writing. 

Definiteness  should  be  given  to  topics  chosen  from  the  fol- 
lowing Ust  by  inserting  proper  names,  street  names,  notes  of 
locality,  and  the  like.  Some  particular  scene  or  figure  should 
be  constantly  before  the  writer's  mind,  in  order  that  some  real 
scene  or  figure  similar  to  it  in  some  way  shall  be  suggested  to 
the  mind  of  the  reader. 


3i8  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

Subjects  for  Description 

The  following  phrases  are  not  intended  as  titles.     The  writer  should 

make  his  own  title  to  fit  his  theme. 

1.  A  village  railroad  station  at  train  time. 

2.  A  city  railroad  station  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening. 

3.  Saturday  afternoon  on  the  river. 

4.  The  old  mill. 

5.  A  blacksmith  shop. 

6.  An  April  Sunday  at  the  park. 

7.  The  finish  of  the  boat  race. 

8.  Five  minutes  before  six  in  a  department  store. 

9.  A  fake  auction  sale. 

10.  The  "barkers"  at  the  county  fair 

1 1 .  The  collision. 

12.  Violet-hunting  in  May. 

13.  The  old  trail. 

14.  The  old  camp  ground. 

15.  Loafing  on  the  campus. 

16.  Signs  of  spring. 

17.  Familiar  characters  in  the  reading  room. 

18.  The  cheerful  conductor. 

19.  My  favorite  policeman. 

20.  Around  the  camp  fire. 

21.  Class  room  diversions 

22.  A  lone  pine  tree. 

23.  The  place  to  go  for  ferns. 

24.  An  old  residence  street  or  square  abandoned  to  trade. 

25.  The  back-porch  side  of  city  life. 

26.  The  half-hour  after  lunch. 

27.  The  biggest  snowstorm. 

28.  The  bend  in  the  river. 

29.  The  finest  place  on  the  lake. 

30.  A  long  carry  in  the  woods. 

31.  Birds  in  winter. 

32.  A  school  playground. 

33.  Milking  time. 

34.  Making  camp  in  a  storm. 

35.  The  parade. 

36.  Watching  the  baseball  returns. 

37.  Before  the  game. 


DESCRIPTION  319 


38.  In  the  court  room. 

39.  The  hardest  hole  on  the  links. 

40.  Shooting  the  rapids. 

41.  The  theater  car. 

42.  The  old  bookstore. 

43.  Market  day. 

44.  The  quiet  hour  in  the  library. 

45.  Sunset  in  the  mountains. 

46.  Dress  parade  at  the  post. 

47.  The  old  cobbler's  shop. 

48.  The  commuter's  accommodation  train. 

49.  In  the  engine-room. 

50.  The  saw  mill. 

51.  Queer  characters  in  the  orchestra. 

52.  A  flirt. 

53.  The  innocent  bystander. 

54.  The  deserted  house. 

55.  A  spring  in  the  woods. 

56.  Going  for  the  mail. 

57.  An  employment  agency. 

58.  The  summit  view. 

59.  The  quarry. 

60.  On  the  bridge. 

61.  The  city  lights  at  night. 

62.  Tlie  owl  car. 

63.  A  country  hotel. 

64.  The  rescue  mission  meeting. 

65.  Closing  the  forms  in  a  newspaper  office. 

66.  The  flower  show. 

67.  At  the  fireside. 

68.  Fisherman's  rest. 

69.  The  busiest  comer. 

70.  An  old  plantation. 

71.  The  battleground. 

72.  The  mysterious  hermit. 

73.  Mrs.  Jones  getting  the  six  children  ready  for  school. 

74.  The  falls. 

75.  A  sweatshop. 

76.  A  strikers'  mass-meeting. 

77.  The  early  train. 

78.  After  the  accident. 


320  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

79.  A  student's  room  as  indicating  character. 

80.  Easter  Sunday  in  the  cemetery. 

81.  The  cabin  in  the  woods. 

82.  Taking  on  the  pilot. 

83.  The  wireless  cabin  on  the  steamer. 

84.  Waiting  for  the  sporting  extra. 

85.  Commencement  day. 

86.  The  laziest  man. 

87.  A  fresh  breeze  on  the  bay. 

88.  The  happy  butcher. 

89.  The  last  dance. 

90.  At  the  polls. 

91.  The  children's  ward  in  the  hospital. 

92.  A  poet  in  low  life. 

93.  Isaac,  the  Socialist  tailor. 

94.  Showing  the  photograph  album. 

95.  At  the  end  of  the  pier. 

96.  A  despondent  cook. 

97.  Noon  hour  at  the  factory. 

98.  The  truant. 

99.  A  picture  exhibition. 
100.  The  haughty  waitress. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  60.  Read  sections  216-219,  and  write  out  a  list  of  ten  sub- 
jects for  description  which  could  be  treated  in  either  of  the  two  ways  (exposi- 
tory and  literary  description). 

Assignment  61.  Read  section  220,  and  write  a  description  of  a  landscape 
or  outdoor  scene  of  some  kind,  mentioning  only  significant  details.  In  this 
and  the  following  assignments  the  list  in  section  233  will  prove  suggestive. 

Assignment  62.  Read  section  221,  and  write  a  description  of  a  living 
room,  study,  office,  or  bedroom,  with  special  reference  to  features  in  the  room 
which  reflect  the  personality  of  its  usual  occupant,  or  occupants. 

Assignmc7it  6t,.  Read  section  222,  and  write  a  description  of  a  person. 
Bear  in  mind  that  the  kind  of  description  desired  is  the  kind  that  might  appear 
near  the  beginning  of  a  story  or  novel,  at  the  first  entrance  of  an  important 
character. 

Assignment  64.  Read  sections  223-227.  Look  up  in  a  novel,  a  short 
story,  or  a  book  of  travel,  a  good  description  containing  motion,  sound,  color. 
Bring  the  book  to  class,  prepared  to  read  effective  passages. 


I 


DESCRIPTION  321 

Assignment  65.  Write  a  description  of  a  landscape  introducing  motion, 
sound,  and  color. 

Assignment  66.  Read  sections  228-230,  and  write  a  description  of  any 
subject  with  special  attention  to  the  choice  of  precisely  the  right  words, 
especially  adjectives  and  verbs. 

Assignment  67.  Read  section  231.  Write  a  description  of  two  hundred 
words  or  more,  making  it  as  vivid  as  you  can.  Then  condense  it  into  two 
or  three  sentences  by  canceling  all  but  the  indispensable  words  that  make 
up  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  image.  Hand  in  the  original 
version  showing  the  cancellations;  or,  if  copied,  hand  in  the  original  with 
the  copy. 

Assignment  68.  Read  section  232,  and  write  a  description  which  strongly 
suggests  the  opening  scene  of  a  possible  story.  It  may  be  either  an  exterior 
or  an  interior,  and  may  introduce  one  or  more  persons,  present  from  the 
beginning  or  entering  after  the  background  has  been  established. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE    SHORT    STORY 

234.  Short  stories  the  most  popular  form  of  literature. 
All  the  world  loves  a  story.  "Once  upon  a  time"  is  the  magic 
phrase  that  draws  a  group  together  about  any  glib  spinner 
of  yarns.  Be  his  tale  as  old  as  the  pyramids,  and  as  lude 
as  a  Druid  circle,  there  will  be  some  to  Hsten  and  admire.  The 
children  he  bewitches  like  the  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  and  the 
old  men  he  can  set  to  dreaming  like  the  Princess  Scheherazade. 
A  good  story  is  the  opener  of  many  doors.  It  introduces  a 
speaker,  illuminates  discourse,  beguiles  weariness,  banishes 
gloom,  brightens  the  night,  and  adorns  the  day.  A  peculiar 
kindliness  and  gratitude  reward  the  teller  of  tales.  For  what 
poet,  or  what  maker  of  plays,  have  we  the  warm  spot  in  our  hearts 
that  we  reserve  for  Poe,  and  Stevenson,  and  Kipling,  and  O. 
Henry?  It  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  power  which  fiction  holds 
over  us  all  that  we  make  our  way  cheerfully  through  the  reams 
of  worthless  magazine  stories  printed  every  month,  content  if  in 
vast  heaps  of  rubbish  we  find  a  single  gem.  No  one  will  do 
this  with  poetry  or  drama.  We  follow  the  lure  of  the  story 
because  we  are  hungry  for  it.  After  every  disappointment  we 
sigh  —  and  begin  another. 

235.  Story-telling  gives  training  in  choice  of  words.  It  is 
no  part  of  the  purpose  of  a  freshman  course  in  composition  to 
train  fiction  writers  for  the  press,  or  even  to  begin  such  training. 
There  may  be  one  in  a  class  who  has  the  talent  for  that,  and  he 
will  find  his  way  to  it  sooner  or  later.  But  every  student  can 
learn  how  to  tell  a  story  without  bungling  and  barrenness. 
Every  writer  can  practice  the  art  of  beginnings,  the  mastery  of 

322 


THE  SHORT  STORY  323 

climax,  the  secret  of  stopping  when  he  has  got  through.  Just 
as  the  practice  of  Uterary  description  gives  training  in  the 
selection  of  apt  words,  so  the  study  of  fictitious  narration  develops 
the  power  of  securing  interest  by  the  imaginative  selection  and 
arrangement  of  ideas  for  suspense  and  climax.  Such  a  degree 
of  invention  as  is  called  for  will  be  found  to  exist,  although  latent, 
in  almost  every  mind. 

236.  Characteristics  of  good  oral  story-telling.  Story-telling 
from  memory  is  a  very  different  thing  from  story-writing,  but 
the  two  have  various  points  in  common.  In  the  oral  repro- 
duction of  stories  previously  read,  or  heard,  an  ordinary  person 
is  so  intent  on  recalling  the  sequence  of  events  that  he  pays 
little  attention  to  the  manner  of  presentation.  When  we  Hsten 
to  good  story-tellers,  however,  we  find  that  they  obey  many 
of  the  laws  of  original  narrative.  Some'  of  these  laws  are  as 
follows : 

(i)  In  a  story  we  must  have  descriptions,  pictures  of  places 
and  persons  and  things  —  not  mere  names  and  labels. 

(2)  Indirect  discourse  is  varied  by  much  directly  quoted 
dialogue.  The  exact  phraseology  of  this  is  not  repeated 
by  rote  from  memory,  but  invented  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment. 

(3)  A  good  story-teller  seldom  uses  the  historical  present 
tense.  This  becomes  wearisome  in  a  very  few  sentences,  whereas 
narration  in  the  past  tense  has  no  monotony.  The  only  purpose 
for  which  the  historical  present  is  sometimes  permissible  is  in 
a  very  condensed  summary  of  a  story  or  play,  introduced  into 
a  criticism.  When  the  story  is  the  main  or  the  only  thing,  it 
should  always  be  told  in  the  past  tense. 

(4)  The  story-teller,  like  the  story-writer,  takes  care  to  man- 
age his  narrative  so  that  the  adding  of  one  event  to  another 
keeps  up  suspense,  increasing  toward  a  climax.  He  avoids 
spoiling  that  climax  by  giving  away  his  story  too  soon. 

(5)  Even  more  than  in  written  fiction,  the  story-teller  must 


324  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

seek  to  avoid  the  danger  of  a  decline  in  interest  between  the 
climax  and  the  conclusion.  This  he  does  by  swift  and  telling 
sentences  that  leave  no  time  for  weariness,  and  a  final  sentence 
that  comes  to  a  full  close  with  a  strong  word  and  a  fitting 
idea. 

(6)  A  skillful  story-teller,  though  remembering  none  of  the 
precise  wording  of  the  original,  varies  the  beginnings  of  his 
sentences,  chooses  instinctively  specific  rather  than  general 
words,  and  in  other  ways  obeys  the  laws  on  which  interest  de- 
pends. He  avoids  "and  then"  as  a  link  between  sentences, 
and  "so"  as  a  link  between  clauses,  as  marks  of  a  crude  and 
childish  narrative  style.  Instead  he  often  begins  his  sentences 
with  some  adverbial  phrase  of  time  or  place. 

While  there  are  some  great  short  stories  that  are  composed 
almost  entirely  of  pure  narration,  the  typical  modern  story  is 
a  series  of  pictures  tied  together  with  dialogue.  That  is,  we 
are  seeing  or  hearing  most  of  the  time:  seeing  how  things 
looked,  and  hearing  what  people  said.  This  is  the  sort  of 
story  most  desirable  for  practice,  whether  in  oral  story-telling  or 
in  the  composition  of  original  written  narratives. 

237.  The  study  of  the  short  story.  Before  undertaking  any 
experiments  of  our  own  in  the  field  of  fiction,  it  is  essential 
to  read  several  good  stories  by  well  known  writers.  All  our 
reading  of  fiction  in  the  past  has  been  primarily  for  entertain- 
ment; we  were  intent  solely  on  following  the  intricacies  of  the 
plot,  or  enjoying  the  humor  of  the  dialogue.  Seldom  did  we 
pay  any  attention  to  the  way  in  which  the  material  was 
put  together  —  to  the  skill  shown  in  the  opening,  the  adroit 
management  of  transitions,  the  treatment  of  dialogue,  the 
use  of  contrast  and  of  climax.  These  are  some  of  the  things  to 
be  looked  for  now.  In  reading,  during  the  next  few  days,  a 
number  of  short  stories  from  lists  suggested  by  the  instructor, 
such  questions  as  the  following  should  be  kept  in  mind: 


THE   SHORT   STORY  325 

(i)  How  does  the  story  begin  —  with  direct  narration,  with  description 
of  places  or  persons,  with  dialogue? 

(2)  How  does  the  author  convey  to  us  that  part  of  the  total  action 
of  the  plot  which  has  already  taken  place  before  the  story  opens  —  the 
so-called  "antecedent  action"? 

(3)  How  much  time  does  the  story  itself  (not  including  the  arvtecedent 
action)  cover? 

(4)  Why  did  the  author  begin  the  story  where  he  did  —  why  not  farther 
back,  or  farther  ahead? 

(5)  How  does  he  bridge  over  the  gaps  or  intervals  of  time  which  separate 
the  several  incidents  actually  narrated?  Is  the  effect  of  these  transitions 
smooth  or  abrupt? 

(6)  How  early  in  the  story  can  the  reader  foresee  the  outcome?  How 
far,  and  in  what  manner,  is  suspense  maintained? 

(7)  What  preHminary  crisis,  or  crises,  can  you  discover  before  the  main 
crisis? 

(8)  What  is  the  nature  of  the  conflict  or  struggle  on  which  the  plot 
turns  — -  for  example,  is  it  between  man  and  man,  between  an  individual 
and  society,  between  man  and  nature,  between  conflicting  motives  in  the 
mind  of  the  principal  character? 

(9)  How  many  important  characters  are  there  in  the  story?  How  many 
subordinate  characters?  Could  the  story  be  told  with  a  smaller  number  of 
characters? 

(10)  Are  there  two  characters  placed  in  evident  and  striking  contrast 
with  each  other? 

(11)  How  are  traits  of  character  brought  out?  Chiefly  by  acts,  chiefly 
by  dialogue,  or  chiefly  by  direct  description? 

(12)  How  is  the  progress  of  the  action  made  clear  —  chiefly  by  direct 
narrative,  chiefly  by  dialogue,  or  chiefly  by  description  of  successive  scenes? 

(13)  Who  is  the  supposed  narrator  of  the  story?  Is  he  one  of  the 
characters  in  the  story,  or  an  outside  observer  who  tells  the  story  on  some 
later  occasion?  If  the  story  is  told  —  as  most  stories  are  —  from  the  stand- 
point of  an  omniscient  anonymous  narrator,  consider  whether  it  would  have 
been  more  effective  if  told  by  some  one  of  the  characters. 

(14)  How  far  does  the  interest  of  the  story  depend  upon  its  setting? 
How  much  of  the  description  and  the  dialogue  contributes  chiefly  to  the 
atmosphere  or  background,  rather  than  to  the  plot?  Is  "local  color"  promi- 
nent in  the  descriptions,  or  dialect  in  the  dialogue?     How  would  the  story 


326  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

be  affected  if  a  similar  situation  were  transferred  to  some  quite  different 
place  and  time? 

(15)  How  does  the  author  manage  the  difficult  passage  between  the 
main  crisis  and  the  end  of  the  story? 

In  order  to  answer  such  questions  intelligently  it  is  necessary 
to  read  a  story  at  least  twice  —  the  first  time  in  order  to  get  the 
general  effect  and  to  enjoy  it  as  a  whole;  the  second  time  in 
order  to  observe  details. 

After  reading  several  short  stories,  some  practice  in  oral 
reproduction  of  stories  before  the  class  may  be  interesting  and 
valuable,  in  case  time  permits  and  circumstances  are  favor- 
able. For  such  practice,  the  suggestions  in  section  236  should 
be  followed  in  so  far  as  they  may  be  applicable. 

238.  "Writing  original  stories.  Considered  as  an  exercise  in 
the  choice  of  words  for  interest,  a  limited  amount  of  fiction 
writing  may  be  useful  for  all  students  of  composition.  It  is  not 
to  be  expected,  however,  that  the  majority  of  a  class  will  be 
capable  of  inventing,  or  even  of  adapting,  plots.  An  advanced 
elective  course  is  the  place  for  study  of  plot  construction.  There 
are  various  objections  to  asking  or  allowing  students  to  borrow 
ideas  from  stories  they  have  read,  to  be  embodied  with  changes 
of  name  and  details  in  essays  purporting  to  be  original.  Such 
a  principle,  once  admitted,  is  apt  to  lead  to  mere  paraphrasing, 
which  if  concealed,  amounts  to  dishonest  plagiarism,  and  if  ad- 
mitted makes  the  work  nearly  worthless.  There  should  be  no 
confusion  in  regard  to  the  purpose  of  this  kind  of  work,  which 
is  merely  to  develop  vigor  of  expression  in  description  and  dia- 
logue. Therefore  each  student  may  be  asked  to  choose  a  plot 
from  the  following  list,  or  others  suggested  by  the  instructor, 
and  write  a  story  of  two  thousand  to  three  thousand  words; 
subject  to  the  exception  that  members  of  the  class  presenting 
for  approval  a  different  plot,  not  borrowed  from  a  published 
work,  nor  previously  used  by  them,  may  write  upon  that  instead. 

The  following  situations  have  no  claim  to  originality  or  other 


THE   SHORT  STORY  327 

merit,  except  that  the  choice  from  them  will  relieve  the  student 
of  the  perplexing  question  what  to  write  about. 

List  of  Plots  for  Stories 

(It  is  in  such  brief  summaries  as  these  that  the  historical  present  tense  is 
appropriate;  not  in  the  complete  stories.) 

1.  Of  two  men  seeking  the  favor  of  a  lady,  one  tries  to  win  an  advantage 
over  the  other  by  teUing  the  lady  of  his  rival's  stinginess.  It  develops  later 
that  the  rival  is  saving  every  penny  for  some  honorable  purpose  —  to  pay 
off  his  father's  debts,  or  make  possible  a  surgical  operation  for  a  mother  or 
sister,  or  start  a  cripple  in  business. 

2.  A  young  engineer  sent  out  to  find  a  practicable  site  for  an  irrigation 
reservoir  in  the  West  discovers  a  rock-walled  valley  which  is  the  only  possible 
place  for  the  purpose.  In  a  cabin  in  the  valley  lives  an  old  couple  with  a 
daughter.  The  daughter  learns  of  his  errand,  and  begs  him  not  to  recom- 
mend that  site,  for  her  aged  parents  will  be  heartbroken  if  forced  to  abandon 
their  lifelong  home,  and  are  too  old  to  begin  life  anew  elsewhere.  Their 
older  children  are  buried  in  the  \'aUey. 

3.  A  student  who  has  piled  up  debts,  of  which  his  family  knows  nothing, 
is  offered  a  chance  to  make  a  hundred  dollars  by  reveaUng  the  signals  or  trick 
plays  of  the  home  team  to  a  spy  sent  by  a  dishonest  coach  from  another 
college. 

4.  A  college  girl,  returning  home  for  Christmas  after  her  first  term,  fuU 
of  selfish  plans,  finds  her  widowed  mother  so  worn  out  and  lonely,  her  wage- 
earning  sister  so  tired  out,  that  she  faces  the  problem  of  giving  up  her  college 
career. 

5.  An  Italian  laborer,  who  has  Just  saved  up  enough  money  to  send  for 
his  wife  and  children  to  come  to  him  from  Sicily,  is  fatally  injured  by  an 
accident. 

6.  A  young  minister,  face  to  face  for  the  first  time  with  the  abuses  of 
modem  industry  in  a  mill  town  or  a  steel  city,  begins  to  doubt  whether 
religion  can  reach  these  people  until  some  measure  of  justice  is  brought  into 
the  poUcy  of  the  employers.  He  hesitates  between  leaving  the  ministry  for 
social  work  and  endangering  his  position  by  preaching  against  the  people 
who  pay  most  of  his  salary. 

7.  A  farmer's  son  tries  to  induce  his  father  to  adopt  modem  methods  of 
farming,  and  hints  that  only  on  one  condition  can  he  stay  on  the  farm.  All 
his  brothers  have  gone  to  the  city,  and  the  old  man  is  depending  on  him  to 
keep  up  the  old  homestead.  The  father's  conservatism  is  too  strong,  they 
quarrel,  and  the  son  leaves  home,  never  to  return, 


328  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

8.  A  boaster  has  built  up  a  tissue  of  exaggerations  about  the  things  he 
has  seen  and  the  people  he  has  met  in  another  city.  Traveling  with  friends, 
he  is  unexpectedly  compelled  to  stay  for  some  hours  in  that  city.  One  by 
one  his  lies  find  him  out,  and  he  has  to  put  up  the  price  of  a  dinner  for  the 
party. 

9.  A  lady  who  for  years  has  played  the  part  of  a  chronic  invalid  unable 
to  walk  is  made  so  angry,  or  so  frightened,  by  some  domestic  occurrence, 
that  she  nms  down  stairs,  and  nearly  knocks  over  the  doctor. 

10.  A  library  assistant  learns  gradually  through  the  inquiries  of  a  young 
factory  worker  that  he  is  ambitious  for  an  education.  She  encourages  him 
to  study  and  to  save  his  earnings  for  a  college  course.  When  he  has  got 
together  several  hundred  dollars,  it  is  swept  away  by  the  rascality  of  a 
private  banker. 

11.  A  Greek  bootblack,  practically  a  slave  under  the  padrone  system, 
through  the  interest  of  a  college  man  begins  to  read  the  history  of  his  race. 
Filled  with  lofty  ambitions,  he  escapes  from  his  shop  and  buys  steerage  pas- 
sage to  Greece  to  fight  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor.  He  never  reaches  Greece 
—  dies  of  typhoid  in  a  New  York  hospital,  or  is  drowned  while  trying  to 
rescue  a  child,  or  is  stabbed  in  a  cjuarrel  on  shipboard. 

12.  An  amateur  musician,  man  or  woman,  the  petted  and  praised 
favorite  of  a  village,  reaches  the  summit  of  ambition  by  completing  plans 
for  a  year  of  study  in  Boston  with  a  famous  teacher.  After  a  brief  hearing 
the  teacher  declines  to  accept  the  pupil  on  any  terms,  as  utterly  lacking  in 
talent.  The  ending  may  be  comic  or  tragic;  the  disappointed  amateur  may 
become  a  successful  tobacco  salesman  or  a  manicurist,  or  may  take  to  drink. 

13.  Visiting  for  the  first  time  bis  dead  father's  early  home,  a  young  man 
meets  accidentally  a  lady  whom  his  father  bad  unsuccessfully  courted  in 
youth.     The  lady  has  a  daughter.     The  natural  consequences  ensue. 

14.  A  freshman  is  making  a  fool  of  himself  in  all  the  ways  a  freshman 
can.  His  father,  who  never  went  to  college,  and  is  trying  to  make  something 
of  the  boy,  seems  harsh  and  unreasonable.  They  have  violent  scenes. 
The  father  is  a  man  who  cannot  express  his  tragic  disappointment  in  any 
other  way  than  by  sarcasm  and  bitterness.  An  old  physician,  thinking  of 
the  boy's  dead  mother,  and  her  unfulfilled  hopes,  has  a  talk  with  the  fresh- 
man and  opens  his  eyes. 

15.  Repeated  disappearances  of  rare  old  books  from  a  library  lead  to  a 
mystery,  since  they  do  not  turn  up  in  the  second-hand  stores.  By  some 
clever  detective  work  a  student  runs  the  culprit  to  his  lair,  an  attic  room  in 
a  business  block,  lined  with  first  editions  and  curiosities  from  the  museums. 
The  thief  is  a  cunning,  half-crazy  old  scholar,  once  a  professor,  discharged 
for  intemperance. 


THE   SHORT   STORY  329 

16.  Told  by  his  doctor  that  he  has  quick  consumption,  with  less  than  a 
year  to  live,  a  young  college  man  sets  out  to  live  his  year  as  usefully  as  pos- 
sible. He  heals  dissensions,  inspires  idlers  to  work,  plans  great  things  for 
his  fraternity,  reads  Stevenson,  tries  to  write  a  novel  or  play  of  college  life, 
and  coughs  himself  to  death  while  watching  a  big  game  from  his  window  op- 
posite the  campus. 

17.  Ringing  by  mistake  the  wrong  doorbell  in  a  row  of  houses,  a  man 
finds  himself  among  strangers,  who  seem  to  be  expecting  him.  He  discovers 
that  he  is  a  long-lost  cousin  of  the  charming  girl  in  pink,  learns  his  name  to  be 
Fred  Wilkins  of  Fredonia,  and  tries  to  act  the  part.  The  game  lasts  nearly 
two  hours,  during  which  time  he  makes  rapid  progress.  When  the  crash 
comes  (arrival  of  the  real  Fred  on  a  delayed  train)  his  explanation  is  so 
ingenious  that  he  is  invited  to  call  the  next  evening. 

18.  A  woman  learns  by  accident  a  story  to  the  discredit  of  her  worst 
enemy.  Her  first  impulse  is,  of  course,  to  communicate  it  to  the  members 
of  the  sewing-circle,  gathered  to  sew  for  the  heathen.  However,  it  happens 
to  be  Christmas  week,  and  the  good  will  of  the  season  works  upon  her  feelings 
to  such  an  extent  that  when  some  one  else  repeats  the  story  she  indignantly 
denies  it.  Becoming  the  champion  of  her  enemy,  she  repudiates  the  charge 
that  the  other  woman  could  be  guilty  of  a  really  mean  act.  It  turns  out 
that  the  story  was  false,  and  the  two  are  reconciled.  (Christmas  carols, 
holly,  and  bells  at  the  end.) 

19.  As  the  quickest  way  of  curing  their  daughter's  ambitions  for  the 
stage,  two  wise  parents  allow  her  to  attempt  a  leading  part  in  a  large  amateur 
charity  show  in  a  local  theater.  She  fails  completely  at  rehearsals,  and 
instead  of  being  crushed,  strangely  enough,  she  sees  the  joke  (or  pretends  to). 
She  is  so  good-natured  about  it  that  the  director  gives  her  a  chance  with  an 
ornamental  silent  part  at  the  performance.  Everybody  admires  her  nerve 
and  she  has  more  bouquets  than  the  star. 

20.  A  bachelor  sign  painter,  who  earns  his  Hving  on  the  billboards,  has 
secret  aspirations  for  high  art.  Nobody  will  buy  his  real  pictures,  but  he 
earns  good  wages  by  his  specialty,  which  is  painting  Ufelike  brown  cigars, 
twelve  feet  long,  with  a  curly  wreath  of  filmy  gray  smoke.  His  easel  pictures 
in  the  loft  of  the  barn  are  mostly  snow  pieces,  with  the  powdered  mica  effect. 
He  takes  out  his  grudge  against  the  public  and  his  love  for  art  by  lending 
money  to  the  impecunious  real  artists  in  town,  giving  them  dinners  at  Casey's 
table  d'hote,  and  paying  the  hospital  bills  of  a  consumptive  German  wood 
carver.  All  the  painters  admire  his  generosity,  borrow  money  from  him  on 
pay  day,  and  laugh  at  his  sparkling  snow  banks.  One  day  he  sprains  his 
wrist  by  a  fall,  and  the  young  Bohemians  take  turns  on  the  scaffold  painting 
his  brown  cigars  for  him  till  he  gets  well. 


330  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

239.  A  climax  essential.  These  situations  are  merely  sugges- 
tive, and  may  be  altered  as  desired.  The  purpose  of  the 
assignment  being  not  originality  but  practice,  it  matters  very 
little  what  plot  one  selects,  provided  it  has  interest  for  the 
writer.  There  must  be  one  leading  character;  one  conflict  of 
motive  with  circumstances,  or  of  one  motive  with  another;  one 
climax  or  culminating  event.  These  are  the  indispensable 
factors  in  the  simplest  story.  A  mere  tale  of  adventure,  in 
which  character  and  motive  are  insignificant  and  events  are 
everything,  has  its  place,  but  not  in  this  chapter.  What- 
ever the  plot,  a  man  or  a  woman  must  somehow  be  put  into  a 
situation  that  yields  either  a  comic  or  a  tragic  dilemma,  an 
alternative,  a  choice,  which  will  issue  either  in  fun  or  in  pathos. 
Naturally,  the  amusing  story  is  better  practice  than  the  serious 
or  pathetic,  and  also  harder  for  most  writers.  Either  will  give 
ample  opportunity  to  practice  the  principles  of  interest. 

240.  Beginnings.  Of  all  the  possible  ways  of  beginning  a 
story  the  beginner  would  do  well  to  choose  one  of  the  three  most 
conventional.  These  are  (i)  the  description  of  the  scene  on 
which  the  story  opens,  (2)  the  description  of  a  character,  and 
(3)  dialogue.  The  third  is  hackneyed,  but  it  has  the  merit  of 
getting  directly  into  the  heart  of  the  story.  It  is  seldom 
desirable  to  begin  with  a  narrative  summary  of  the  events 
preceding  the  beginning  of  the  plot.  These  should  be  brought 
in  later  by  implication  or  dialogue.  An  unpracticed  writer  is 
likely  in  getting  under  way  to  write  several  pages  that  must 
be  cut  out  in  revision.  A  good  rule  is  to  choose  for  the  begin- 
ning of  the  story  a  time  not  more  than  a  few  days  or  weeks 
before  the  crisis.  There  are  many  exceptions  to  this,  stories 
covering  several  months,  even  years,  but  beginners  would  better 
avoid  them.  Since  the  story  must  leave  a  single  dominant 
impression,  a  strict  limitation  of  time  is  necessary  for  those 
who  are  not  skilled  in  maintaining  unity. 

241.  Omit  unnecessary  details.     According  to  the  principle 


THE   SHORT   STORY  331 

above  laid  down,  the  tenth  story  in  the  hst  may  be  begun  at 
the  point  where  the  ambitious  factory  worker  has  come  to  tell 
the  Ubrarian  that  he  has  saved  almost  enough  to  go  to  college. 
The  previous  history  is  brought  out  by  way  of  retrospect  or 
dialogue.  At  his  next  visit  he  reports  the  catastrophe.  The 
sixteenth  story  would  not  cover  directly  the  whole  of  the  hero's 
last  year,  but  only  a  few  weeks  at  the  end  of  it.  The  changes 
he  has  brought  about  among  his  friends  are  shown  by  descrip- 
tion and  dialogue.  If  a  man  is  sliding  down  hill,  the  story- 
writer  need  not  begin  at  the  top  of  the  hill;  he  may  show  the 
slider  more  than  halfway  down,  and  follow  him  till  he  strikes 
bottom.  A  climber  need  not  be  traced  all  the  way  up  the 
trail.  If  we  sight  him  at  the  last  half-mile,  and  notice  how 
he  looks  and  acts,  we  can  imagine  what  has  gone  before.  What 
we  want  is  to  see  him  at  the  summit. 

Fiction  seeks  culminations.  The  crest  of  the  wave;  the  critical 
moment  of  a  big  strike;  the  hour  of  moral  overstrain;  sudden 
disillusion;  the  magical  dawn  of  hope;  the  swift  oncoming  of 
despair;  triumph  and  defeat;  moral  birth,  and  death,  and 
resurrection  —  these  are  the  themes  of  the  short  story.  The 
humorous  story,  of  course,  piles  up  absurdities  until  hfe  is  one 
broad  grin.  If  the  student  will  test  his  climax  by  considering 
whether  it  would  make  a  good  scene  on  the  stage,  he  will  at 
least  avoid  tameness. 

242.  Unity  in  the  narrative  paragraph.  There  are  several 
matters  of  form  in  which  fiction  differs  widely  from  other  kinds 
of  composition.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  paragraph. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  for  the  convenience  of  the  reader  all 
speeches  or  remarks  in  dialogue  are  separately  paragraphed, 
stories  have  many  short  paragraphs.  Not  only  is  this  true  in 
passages  containing  dialogue,  but  in  description  and  direct 
narrative  as  well.  A  descriptive  paragraph,  containing  all  the 
essential  details  about  a  scene  or  a  person,  may  be  very  brief. 
Narration  of  events  which  follow  one  another  in  swift  successiou 


332  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

may  well  be  put  into  paragraphs  of  only  three  or  four  sentences 
each.  Movement  is  the  essential  in  narration.  The  unity  of 
the  paragraph  is  not  less  important  than  in  exposition,  but  it  is 
differently  secured.  In  exposition  we  take  a  topic  sentence  and 
develop  it  into  a  paragraph,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  make  it 
clear  and  to  make  it  strong.  In  narration  we  take  a  certain  event 
or  a  stage  in  a  process,  and  try  to  make  it  stand  out.  Here  too 
we  seek  to  make  it  clear  and  strong,  but  to  the  imagination 
rather  than  to  the  understanding.  A  few  vigorous  strokes  often 
secure  this  end  better  than  the  multiplication  of  details;  hence  the 
tendency  to  shorter  paragraphs. 

243.  Coherence  in  narration  implicit  rather  than  explicit. 
Not  only  is  unity  ditTerently  attained,  but  coherence  as  well. 
Expository  writing  abounds  in  connectives.  Words  and  phrases 
of  reference  tie  the  sentences  together.  Reminder  and  anticipa- 
tion are  frequent.  We  recapitulate  the  past,  and  announce  the 
future;  tell  what  has  been  covered,  and  promise  what  is  to 
be  revealed.  Narration  has  coherence  of  events  and  motives, 
rather  than  of  style;  of  deeds,  rather  than  of  words.  It  is 
true  that  a  marked  abruptness  or  jerkiness,  originally  imitated 
from  Kipling,  has  become  a  vice  among  certain  able  writers  at 
present;  but  even  the  best  masters  of  the  short  story  before  Kip- 
ling have  less  explicit  coherence  of  style  than  is  demanded  in 
exposition.  Fiction  aims  usually  to  be  objective,  to  show 
things  as  they  are,  or  seem  to  be,  without  intruding  too  conspicu- 
ously the  writer's  reasoning  about  his  story.  There  is  an  air 
of  giving  us  the  facts,  and  letting  us  draw  our  own  conclusions; 
and  facts  do  not  as  a  rule  bear  on  their  surface  a  clew  to  their 
logical  relations.  Therefore,  while  the  story-writer  is  to  see  to 
it  that  there  is  an  underlying  coherence  of  one  act  with  another, 
a  consistency  of  motive,  an  indication  of  the  necessary  links  in  a 
chain,  he  does  not  join  his  sentences  so  closely  as  does  the  critic 
or  the  historian. 

244.  Emphasis  in  narration.     Another  point  in  which  the 


THE  SHORT  STORY  ^^3 

means  employed  in  narration  differ  from  those  hitherto  famihar 
is  the  manner  of  securing  emphasis.  In  exposition  emphasis  is 
produced  by  position,  relative  space,  and  strong  words.  In  nar- 
ration the  position  of  the  parts  is  determined  by  chronological 
order.  The  relative  space  alloted  to  the  several  parts  of  a  story 
is  not  by  any  means  directly  proportional  to  their  importance,  for 
the  climax  may  be  powerfully  set  forth  in  a  single  sentence.  In 
general,  however,  the  principle  of  relative  space  holds  good  nega- 
tively in  narration;  that  is,  unimportant  matters  must  not  be 
dwelt  on  at  length.  But  the  chief  means  of  emphasis  in  nar- 
ration is  the  use  of  strong  words.  All  that  was  said  in  the 
chapters  on  words  and  on  description  concerning  high-power 
words  applies  with  special  force  in  narrative.  Words  that  con- 
vey strong  sense-impressions  give  vividness,  and  therefore  em- 
phasis. Passages  that  show  character  by  deeds  or  words  rather 
than  by  direct  assertion  require  the  reader  to  draw  his  own 
inference,  and  so  promote  emphasis.  Whatever  we  vividly 
realize  for  ourselves  in  reading  a  story,  whatever  we  make  out 
for  ourselves  without  being  told,  is  strong. 

245.  The  point  of  view  in  narration.  A  further  difference 
between  narration  and  exposition  is  in  the  point  of  view.  If 
a  writer  desires  to  explain  anything  to  a  definite  sort  of  readers, 
he  adopts  as  nearly  as  he  can  their  point  of  view.  Adaptation 
to  the  audience  is  a  cardinal  rule  of  exposition  and  argument. 
In  narration,  on  the  other  hand,  the  point  of  view  is  often  one 
very  foreign  to  that  of  the  reader.  It  is  true  that  in  writing 
stories  for  children  one  adapts  the  vocabulary  and  the  choice  of 
subjects  to  juvenile  comprehension;  but  stories  for  adults  have 
a  totally  different  sort  of  adaptation.  The  point  of  view,  in- 
stead of  being  that  of  the  reader,  is  that  of  some  person  con- 
cerned in  the  story.  It  may  be  that  of  the  principal  actor  him- 
self, or  of  his  omniscient  friend,  or  his  worldy  wise  valet.  It  may 
be  the  point  of  view  of  a  stupid  peasant,  who  merely  sees 
things 'Without  understanding  them.    Tragic   events  may  be 


334  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

narrated  with  an  apparent  indifference  to  their  significance, 
which  by  its  very  detachment  heightens  the  effect.  This  is 
the  style  of  the  old  English  ballads,  and  the  source  of  their 
power.  The  author  may  seem  to  apologize  for  his  characters, 
or  to  mock  them  behind  their  backs.  There  is  scarcely  any 
limitation  to  the  variety  of  points  of  view  that  may  be  chosen, 
but  it  is  an  inflexible  rule  that  a  point  of  view  once  chosen  must 
be  adhered  to  throughout  the  story. 

246.  The  supposed  narrator.  One  of  the  commonest  ways  of 
telling  a  story  is  the  impersonal  way,  in  which  the  point  of 
view  is  that  of  the  ordinary  observer,  who  has  by  convention 
the  power  to  see  and  hear  what  is  going  on  behind  closed  doors, 
and  to  tell  us  what  his  characters  are  thinking.  It  is  of  course 
the  easiest  way,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  master  perhaps  the  most 
effective  as  well.  On  the  other  hand,  for  practice  work  there 
is  much  value  in  assuming  some  other  basis  than  this.  Thus, 
if  we  choose  the  standpoint  of  a  certain  friend  of  the  hero,  we 
shall  not  make  him  tell  us  anything  that  happens,  except  as  he 
sees  it,  or  hears  of  it,  or  infers  it.  He  will  not  know  what  the 
hero  is  doing  alone  in  his  room  except  by  the  sounds  or  other 
effects.  He  will  give  us  nohiformationaboutthehero'sthoughts 
but  only  about  his  actions,  his  words,  and  the  expression  of  his 
face. 

Supi)ose  that  the  story  of  the  Greek  bootblack  (the  eleventh 
plot)  is  to  be  told  by  the  college  man  who  started  the  boy  on 
his  disastrous  career  as  a  Hellenic  patriot.  He  will  reveal  the 
bootblack's  dawning  sense  of  the  glory  of  Marathon  only  by  the 
boy's  questions  and  his  acts.  He  will  give  the  conclusion  of 
the  story  only  as  he  heard  it  afterward  from  some  one  who 
traveled  with  the  boy,  or  from  a  formal  letter  written  by  a 
ship's  surgeon  or  a  consul.  The  quarrel  between  the  old  farmer 
and  his  son  (the  seventh  plot)  may  be  told  by  the  mother,  or  by 
a  hired  man,  but  very  likely  it  will  be  better  done  in  the  imper- 
sonal style.     Whatever  plot  one  chooses,  the  first  question  to 


THE   SHORT   STORY  335 

answer  is,  Who  is  going  to  tell  this  story  —  the  principal  actor, 
a  minor  character,  an  invisible  onlooker?  The  decision  will 
color  the  whole  story;  sometimes  with  sympathy,  sometimes 
with  prejudice,  most  often  with  a  deliberate  and  evident  aim 
to  be  impartial. 

247.  The  revision  of  the  story.  Revision  is  more  important 
in  narration  than  in  most  other  kinds  of  writing.  Not  only 
must  the  descriptive  passages  be  pruned  of  useless  words  and 
strengthened  according  to  the  principles  set  forth  in  the  last 
chapter,  but  the  narrative  portions  and  the  dialogue  must  also 
be  improved.  The  narrative  sentences  are  to  be  scanned  for 
rapidity  of  movement,  strong  verbs,  specific  adjectives.  Fre- 
quently two  successive  short  sentences  are  to  be  combined. 
Occasionally  long  sentences  are  to  be  divided.  The  paragraph- 
ing is  adjusted  to  mark  the  natural  transitions  of  the  story. 

Dialogue  must  be  made  absolutely  true  to  colloquial  usage, 
the  particular  colloquial  usage  of  the  type  represented.  A  re- 
view of  the  chapter  on  colloquial  English  (Chapter  X)  will 
remind  the  writer  of  various  points  in  which  conversation  differs 
from  writing.  That  chapter,  however,  deals  chiefly  with  good 
colloquial  Enghsh.  In  stories,  we  have,  of  course,  full  hberty 
to  imitate  the  real  talk  of  real  people,  including  their  bad 
grammar  and  their  slang.  Profanity  sometimes  seems  to  give 
zest,  but  it  is  too  cheap  and  easy  a  way  of  getting  an  effect. 
Nobody  is  going  to  complain  of  a  single  irrepressible  "damn" 
now  and  then,  if  it  justifies  itself,  but  fiction  full  of  "cuss- words" 
is  a  very  stupid  form  of  amusement.  The  stage  tolerates  it 
more  than  the  press.  Many  editors  will  not  allow  it  at  all. 
Short  of  profanity  and  vulgarity  the  writer  may  make  his 
characters  talk  as  nearly  as  he  can  like  the  persons  they  purport 
to  be. 

In  the  revision  of  dialogue  the  perplexing  matter  of  naming 
the  speakers  must  be  adjusted.  "He  said,"  "she  replied," 
"added  George,"  and  such  phrases  are  not  needed  in  any  such 


336  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

profusion  as  the  young  writer  supposes.  Of  course  there  must 
never  be  any  doubt  as  to  who  is  speaking,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
necessary  to  label  every  question  and  answer.  Synonyms 
for  said  will  be  worked  in  to  vary  the  monotony  Descriptive 
clauses  indicating  the  expression  or  gesture  or  attitude  of  a 
speaker  may  be  added  here  and  there  to  relieve  the  bareness 
of  the  sentences.  At  times  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  too 
much  continuous  dialogue.  In  that  case  it  will  be  cut,  or 
divided  by  action.  When  the  farmer's  son  is  talking  about 
running  the  farm  on  scientific  principles,  the  two  restless  men 
are  walking  about  the  room.  One  picks  up  a  book  (what 
book?).  Another  points  out  the  window  (at  what?).  There 
is  more  or  less  hammering  on  the  table.  A  dialogue  that  lasts 
more  than  four  or  five  hundred  words  with  no  hint  of  action 
or  gesture  grows  to  be  dull.  All  these  things  are  to  be  managed 
in  the  revision,  not  in  the  first  draft.  Unlike  some  other  kinds 
of  writing,  a  story  is  apt  to  have  more  merit  if  it  is  dashed  off 
without  regard  to  form,  and  then  carefully  worked  over,  than 
if  it  is  put  together  bit  by  Int  in  cold  blood. 

After  the  writer  has  done  his  best  by  way  of  revision,  the 
instructor  will  still  find  many  things  to  criticise.  A  second 
revision  based  upon  a  conference  is  vital  to  the  best  results. 
Even  if  the  work  is  well  done,  there  are  always  weak  words  to 
be  eliminated  and  vigorous  touches  to  be  added.  It  should  be 
constantly  remembered  that  the  larger  part  of  the  class  is 
writing  a  story  solely  for  practice  in  winning  interest  by  the 
choice  of  strong  words,  not  with  any  idea  of  producing  fiction 
that  has  market  value.  However,  unsuspected  talents  may  be 
revealed  and  developed  in  such  practice,  which  are  well  worth 
following  up  in  later  elective  work  in  composition. 

Suggested  Assignments 
Assignment  69.     Read  sections  234-237.     Read  a  short  story  from  the 
list  announced  by  the  instructor,  noting  such  points  as  are  indicated  in 
section  237. 


THE  SHORT   STORY  337 

Assignment  70.  Read  section  238.  Select  from  the  list  of  plots  one 
upon  which  a  story  wiU  later  be  written,  and  begin  thinking  it  over;  or  work 
out  an  original  idea  for  a  story  if  possible.     Read  a  second  short  story. 

Assignment  71.  Read  a  third  short  story.  Read  sections  239-241. 
Write  out  and  bring  to  class  a  complete  plan  or  scenario  of  your  original  story, 
including  aU  the  main  events,  assigning  names  and  places,  and  showing 
definitely  the  points  of  beginning,  climax,  and  conclusion. 

Assignment  72.  Read  sections  242-246.  Begin  writing  the  story  (total 
length  is  to  be  from  two  thousand  words  upwards) . 

Assignmefd  73.     Work  on  the  story. 

Assignment  74.     Finish  the  first  draft  of  the  story. 

Assignment  75.  Read  section  247.  Revise  the  story  thoroughly  for 
vividness  in  descriptions,  realism  in  dialogue,  and  effective  climax.  Spend 
at  least  two  hours  in  making  all  possible  improvements. 

Assignment  76.     Copy  the  story  and  hand  it  in. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL   NARRATION 

248.  The  historical  imagination.  Historical  narration,  like 
fictitious  narration,  is  illuminated  by  vivid  descriptions,  when 
the  sources  afford  material  for  such  descriptions;  and  appeals 
in  other  ways  to  the  historical  miagination,  which  has  a  certain 
kinship  with  the  story-sense.  The  vital  difference  is  that 
history  and  biography  are  limited  to  the  available  evidence, 
while  the  story  is  limited  only  by  probabihty. 

If  we  set  out  to  write  an  account  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher's 
famous  speech  at  Liverpool  during  the  Civil  War,  the  first  thing 
to  do  is  to  read  contemporary  accounts  of  the  circumstances 
under  which  the  speech  was  delivered.  We  must  read  the  speech 
itself,  read  about  its  immediate  effects,  consider  its  indirect 
results.  Then,  and  only  then,  can  imagmation  come  to  our 
aid  in  making  the  scene  vivid  to  the  reader.  We  can  add  nothmg 
to  the  data;  we  can  only  subtract.  Skillful  selection  of  descrip- 
tive details  drawn  from  history  is  the  only  way  in  which  w^e  can 
legitimately  build  up  a  historical  picture  to  vitalize  a  narrative. 
In  like  manner,  a  narrative  of  the  Chicago  fire,  or  the  Jutland 
naval  battle,  or  the  charge  at  Chateau-Thierry,  if  it  purports  to 
be  history  rather  than  fiction,  must  be  drawn  entirely  from  the 
final  revised  newspaper  and  periodical  accounts.  No  dialogue 
may  be  invented.  If  we  have  no  reliable  report  of  any  conversa- 
tions connected  with  the  event,  the  aid  given  to  fiction  by  quoted 
dialogue  must  be  dispensed  with.  Further,  the  selection  of 
material  for  emphasis  differs  in  fiction  and  in  history.  In  the 
story  we  work  for  a  climax  which  shall  impress  the  imagination. 
To  that  end  we  omit  many  details,  not  because  they  are  irrele- 

338 


HISTORICAL  NARRATION  339 

vant,  but  because  they  are  dull.  The  historian's  selection  rests 
upon  a  different  basis.  He  seeks  to  show  causes  and  results,  and 
deals  with  logical  relations,  rather  than  with  aesthetic  values. 
Above  all,  he  must  explain  events.  Therefore  history  is  an 
expository  narrative. 

249.  Exposition  in  history.  In  Chapter  VII  there  was  an 
assignment  of  long  expository  essays  upon  historical  subjects. 
These  essays  were  based  upon  the  reading  of  various  sources, 
and  were  designed  principally  to  develop  the  power  of  selecting 
and  combining  material.  It  was  stipulated  that  the  narrative 
element  in  them  should  be  relatively  slight,  in  order  to  insure 
adequate  attention  to  expository  structure.  Now,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  come  to  the  consideration  of  historical  narration  as  a 
separate  species  of  composition.  The  expository  purpose  still 
remains  in  greater  or  less  degree,  but  the  emphasis  is  upon 
events.  What  happened,  and  why  did  it  happen?  In  any 
detailed  historical  narrative  there  are  many  events  concerning 
which  the  second  question  cannot  be  answered  for  lack  of  in- 
formation. If  one  is  writing  the  history  of  a  city,  there  will  be 
some  stages  of  its  expansion  plainly  due  to  geographical  causes, 
and  others,  equally  important,  of  which  the  explanation  has 
disappeared.  History  must  include  events  and  their  meaning, 
if  possible;  but  events  slightly  understood,  or  not  understood 
at  all,  must  be  faithfully  reported.  This  point  constitutes  the 
principal  difference  between  the  assignments  of  this  chapter 
and  those  of  Chapter  VII. 

250.  Description  in  history.  Historical  description  goes 
with  historical  narration.  In  its  means  of  securing  force  it  can 
learn  much  from  the  descriptions  of  fiction.  Here,  as  there,  the 
specific  is  preferable  to  the  general;  words  that  cgnvey  strong 
sense-impressions  are  effective;  and  the  point  of  view  should 
be  clearly  defined.  For  details  of  a  sort  available  for  vivid 
historical  descriptions  the  larger  works  of  reference  must  be 
consulted.     Manuals  have  no  space  for  anything  more  than  an 


340  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

outline  of  events.  It  must  always  be  remembered  that  history 
depends  upon  geography,  and  that  guidebooks,  works  of  travel, 
maps,  and  photographs  are  among  the  sources  for  historical 
description. 

251.  English  history  studied  in  composition  assignments. 
The  historical  assignments  in  this  chapter  are  intended  to  form 
an  introduction  to  early  English  history,  or  a  review  of  it, 
which  will  have  direct  value  in  the  study  of  English  literature. 
College  study  of  general  European  history,  even  if  it  comes 
early  enough  to  form  a  background  for  introductory  courses  in 
English  literature,  pays  too  little  attention  to  the  elementary 
facts  of  English  history.  It  takes  for  granted  many  things 
that  college  freshmen  and  sophomores  do  not  know.  Collateral 
reading,  in  such  a  book  as  Cheyney's  Short  History  of  England, 
or  Gardiner's  Student's  History  of  England,  is  almost  indis- 
pensable for  any  useful  study  of  the  history  of  English  literature. 
This  work  may  well  be  begun  in  the  latter  part  of  the  freshman 
year  in  connection  with  narrative  writing.  The  methods  to  be 
followed  in  collecting  and  arranging  material  are  similar  to 
these  explained  in  Chapters  VI  and  VII.  Abundant  biblio- 
graphical references  are  given  by  Cheyney.  From  the  fifty 
subjects  named  each  member  of  the  class  should  write  an  essay 
of  about  a  thousand  words,  based  on  reading  from  at  least  two 
books,  besides  encyclopedias.  The  sources  used  should  be  Hsted 
at  the  end  of  the  essay,  and  all  quoted  passages  should  be  plainly 
marked,  with  proper  citations.  The  topics  extend  from  the 
Saxon  conquest  down  to  the  beginning  of  modern  literature 
with  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  (449-1558).  Other  topics  in 
later  English  history,  or  in  world  history  of  recent  years,  may 
be  added  by  approval  of  the  instructor. 

Topics  for  Historical  Essays 

1.  England  at  the  End  of  the  Roman  Period. 

2.  The  Saxon  Conquest. 

3.  The  Christianization  of  England. 


HISTORICAL  NARRATION  341 

4.  Caedmon. 

5.  Bede. 

6.  Local  Government  in  Saxon  England. 

7.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 

8.  The  Danish  Invasions. 

9.  Alfred  the  Great. 

10.  The  Norman  Conquest. 

11.  WiUiam  the  Conqueror. 

12.  History  of  the  Tower  of  London. 

13.  History  of  Kenilworth  Castle. 

14.  Life  in  a  Norman  Castle. 

15.  History  of  Canterbury  Cathedral. 

16.  History  of  Westminster  Hall. 

17.  History  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

18.  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion. 

19.  The  Reign  of  King  John. 

20.  Thomas  Becket. 

21.  The  Beginnings  of  Parliament. 

22.  Monks  and  Friars  in  Medieval  England. 

23.  The  Jews  in  Medieval  England. 

24.  The  War  of  Scottish  Liberation. 

25.  Oxford  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

26.  The  Battle  of  Crecy. 

27.  Rural  Life  in  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

28.  Travel  in  Medieval  England. 

29.  The  Peasants'  Rebellion. 

30.  John  of  Gaunt. 

31.  John  WycUffe. 

32.  William  of  Wykeham. 

33.  Geoffrey  Chaucer. 

34.  Henry  V. 

35.  The  Battle  of  Agincourt. 

36.  Joan  of  Arc. 

37.  The  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

38.  Richard  III. 

39.  WiUiam  Caxton. 

40.  Sir  Thomas  More. 

41.  William  Tyndale. 

42.  Cardinal  Wolsey. 

43.  The  Dissolution  of  the  Monasteries. 

44.  The  Reign  of  Edward  VI. 


342  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

45.  Early  History  of  the  English  Bible. 

46.  The  EstabUshment  of  the  Church  of  England. 

47.  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

48.  The  Reign  of  Mary. 

49.  Archbishop  Cranmer. 

50.  England  at  the  Accession  of  Elizabeth. 

Several  points  may  be  mentioned  in  regard  to  these  histori- 
cal essays.  Particular  care  is  to  be  taken  in  the  selection  of 
anecdotes  and  specific  instances  to  illustrate  the  points  made. 
The  paragraphing  of  historical  narrative  has  much  the  same 
principle  as  that  of  exposition.  Chronological  limits  sometimes 
supply  the  natural  transitions  from  one  paragraph  to  another, 
but  cjuite  as  often  the  grouping  of  material  is  topical.  Above 
all,  the  writer  is  to  remember  that  his  subject  is  not  inherently 
interesting  to  the  average  audience,  and  that  therefore  he  is  to 
undertake  deliberately  to  bring  out  those  features  of  it  which 
seem  to  have  enduring  significance  and  value.  Nothing  can  be 
more  barren  and  useless  than  the  mere  writing  down  of  cold, 
dead  facts  without  interpretation  and  vitalization.  The  audience 
is  to  be  constantly  in  mind  —  a  college  audience,  knowing  little 
of  English  history,  but  responsive  to  every  touch  of  human  in- 
terest, of  idealism,  of  beauty  and  power. 

252.  Biography  as  the  interpretation  of  personality.  Bio- 
graphical writing  such  as  that  included  in  the  historical  topics 
al)ove  named  is  practically  identical  in  method  with  other  nar- 
ration. Another  kind  of  biography,  however,  is  more  appro- 
priate in  the  treatment  of  modern  subjects.  Su})pose  we 
undertake  an  essay  on  Leo  Tolstoy.  What  we  need  here  is  not 
a  mere  statement  of  the  facts  of  his  life,  as  in  the  case  of  Thomas 
Becket  or  Cardinal  Wolsey,  as  part  of  the  history  of  the  time, 
but  an  interpretation.  Tolstoy  represents  a  great  idea.  All 
the  books  that  he  wrote,  and  all  the  deeds  that  he  did,  merely 
illuminate  the  stages  of  a  unique  and  fascinating  character. 
Hence  in  writing  about  him  we  more  nearly  approach  exposi- 


HISTORICAL  NARRATION  343 

tion,  using  narrative  only  to  illustrate  our  interpretation  of  his 
character.  This  is  a  kind  of  writing  exceedingly  valuable  for 
the  student.  It  introduces  him  to  the  reading  of  modern  bi- 
ography, a  part  of  education  much  neglected  by  college  men. 
Further,  it  cultivates  the  power  to  seize  the  essential  elements 
of  a  man's  greatness  and  of  his  weakness,  and  to  show  his  life 
as  a  conflict,  issuing  in  victory  or  defeat. 

For  the  biographical  essays  in  the  following  list,  each  student 
should  read,  in  addition  to  a  short  encyclopedia  sketch  of  the  life 
for  an  outline,  at  least  two  hundred  pages  from  the  larger 
standard  biography  and  from  the  letters  of  the  subject.  No 
essay  can  be  satisfactory  that  is  based  on  an  encyclopedia.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  time  available  will  hardly  permit  the  reading 
through  of  a  large  biography.  Judicious  selection  from  the 
fuller  narratives  for  picturesque  detail,  preceded  or  followed 
by  the  reading  of  a  summary  account,  will  give  the  best  com- 
bination. For  a  few  titles  on  the  list,  magazine  articles  will 
be  the  only  available  information.  These  essays,  like  the  nar- 
ratives from  English  history,  should  be  at  least  a  thousand  words 
long. 

Topics  for  Biographical  Essays 

1.  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 

2.  Ben  Jonson. 

3.  Oliver  Cromwell. 

4.  John  Bunyan. 

5.  Alexander  Pope. 

6.  Daniel  Defoe. 

7.  Jonathan  Swift. 

8.  John  Wesley. 

9.  Samuel  Johnson. 

10.  Edmund  Burke. 

11.  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan. 

12.  Johann  Wolfgang  von  Goethe. 

13.  Heinrich  Heine. 

14.  Francois  Marie  Arouet  de  Voltaire. 

15.  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau. 


344  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

1 6.  Honore  Gabriel  de  Mirabeau. 

17.  WiUiam  Blake. 

18.  Benjamin  Franklin. 

19.  George  Washington. 

20.  Robert  Morris. 

21.  Thomas  Jefferson. 

22.  Alexander  Hamilton. 
2^.  William  Wordsworth. 

24.  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 

25.  Charles  Lamb. 

26.  George  Gordon  Lord  Byron. 

27.  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 

28.  John  Keats. 

29.  Walter  Scott. 

30.  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay. 

31.  John  Henry  Newman. 

32.  Thomas  Carlyle. 

33.  John  Ruskin. 

34.  Charles  Kingsley. 

35.  John  Stuart  Mill. 

36.  Jane  Austen. 

37.  William  Makepeace  Thackeray. 

38.  Charles  Dickens. 

39.  George  Eliot. 

40.  Victor  Hugo. 

41.  Camillo  Benso  Cavour. 

42.  Giuseppe  Mazzini. 

43.  Giuseppe  Garibaldi. 

44.  Prince  Bismarck. 

45.  Benjamin  Disraeli.  . 

46.  WiUiam  Ewart  (Gladstone. 

47.  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Seventh  Earl  of  Shaftesbury. 

48.  Henry  Martyn. 

49.  James  Chalmers. 

50.  David  Livingstone. 

51.  Daniel  Webster. 

52.  Robert  Edward  Lee. 

53.  Stonewall  Jackson. 

54.  Abraham  Lincoln. 

55.  Ulysses  S.  Grant. 

56.  Henry  David  Thoreau. 


HISTORICAL  NARRATION  345 

57.  Edgar  Allen  Poe. 

58.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

59.  James  Russell  Lowell. 

60.  Walt  Whitman. 

61.  Sidney  Lanier. 

62.  Robert  Browning. 

63.  Alfred  Tennyson. 

64.  Matthew  Arnold. 

65.  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti. 

66.  George  Meredith. 

67.  Algernon  Charles  Swinburne. 

68.  William  Morris. 

69.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

70.  Charles  Darwin. 

71.  Herbert  Spencer. 

72.  Thomas  Henry  Huxley. 

73.  Louis  Pasteur. 

74.  Henrik  Ibsen. 

75.  Clara  Barton. 

76.  Florence  Nightingale. 

77.  Dwight  L.  Moody. 

78.  Octavia  Hill. 

79.  AUce  Freeman  Palmer. 

80.  Helen  Keller. 

81.  Jane  Addams. 

82.  Leo  Tolstoy 

83.  Richard  Wagner. 

84.  Grover  Cleveland. 

85.  Martin  Brewer  Anderson. 

86.  William  Rainey  Harper. 

87.  Phillips  Brooks. 

88.  Andrew  Carnegie. 

89.  George  Bernard  Shaw. 

90.  Augustus  St.  Gaudens. 

91.  Theodore  Thomas. 

92.  Edward  Macdowell. 

93.  William  James. 

94.  Booker  T.  Washington. 

95.  Lord  Kitchener 

96.  Marshal  Foch. 

97.  David  Lloyd-George. 


346  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

98.  Theodore  Roosevelt. 

99.  Charles  William  Eliot. 
100.     Woodrow  Wilson. 

Suggested  A  ssignments 

Assignment  77.  Read  sections  248-251.  Select  a  historical  subject 
from  the  Hst  in  section  251,  or  some  other  historical  subject  approved  by 
the  instructor,  and  begin  reading  in  preparation  for  an  essay. 

Assignments  78,  79.  Complete  the  reading  for  the  historical  essay  and 
make  an  outhne. 

Assignment  80.     Historical  essay  due. 

Assignment  81.  Read  section  252,  choose  a  biographical  subject,  and 
begin  reading. 

Assignments  82,  83.     Complete  the  reading  and  make  an  outline. 

Assignment  84.     Biographical  essay  due. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
COLLEGE    JOURNALISM 

253.  News  writing  and  editorial  writing  are  important  for 
students.  Although  a  comparatively  small  number  of  men  do 
most  of  the  work  on  college  newspapers  and  magazines,  yet  some 
knowledge  of  journalistic  methods  is  desirable  for  all  who  read 
them.  Both  in  widening  the  group  of  possible  contributors  to 
these  periodicals,  and  in  laying  the  foundation  for  an  intelligent 
judgment  of  the  merits  or  demerits  of  the  editorial  management, 
a  little  study  and  practice  in  this  kind  of  writing  may  be  regarded 
as  a  proper  part  of  any  college  course  in  composition.  The  work 
done  on  a  college  newspaper  is  of  four  kinds:  (i)  news  writing; 
(2)  editorial  writing;  (3)  editorial  supervision  and  management 
of  the  printing  of  the  paper,  including  preparation  of  copy, 
writing  heads,  reading  galley  proofs,  making  up  the  "dummy," 
indicating  the  arrangement  of  matter  on  the  pages,  and  reading 
the  page  proofs;  (4)  business  management,  including  advertising 
and  subscriptions.  Of  these  the  first  two  kinds  will  be  briefly 
considered  in  this  chapter. 

254.  Many  kinds  of  narrative  are  really  news  writing.  Nar- 
rative writing  may  be  divided,  according  to  purpose,  into  three 
classes:  (i)  fictitious  narratives,  written  to  please;  (2)  historical 
and  biographical  narratives  dealing  with  the  past,  written  to 
inform  as  well  as  to  please;  (3)  narratives  of  current  events, 
written  to  convey  prompt  and  accurate  information,  to  tell  the 
news.  This  last  kind  of  narration  has  much  wider  uses  than  the 
term  "news  writing"  may  seem  to  imply.  Not  merely  reports  in- 
tended for  daily  newspapers  and  college  weeklies,  but  also  much 
of  the  contents  of  college  annuals,  and  many  reports  of  a  narra- 

347 


348  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

live  sort  written  by  professional  and  business  men,  may  be 
grouped  together  under  this  head.  There  may  not  seem  to  be 
any  close  cormection  between  the  college  reporter's  account  of 
a  student  debate,  or  a  game,  and  a  business  manager's  monthly 
report  to  his  board  of  directors,  or  an  engineer's  statement  of 
progress  on  public  works  during  a  fiscal  year.  Yet  these  and 
many  other  kinds  of  narrative  writing  have  this  in  common,  that 
they  aim  to  report  an  event  or  series  of  events  with  clearness  and 
accuracy.  While  the  primary  purpose  of  fiction  is  to  please, 
and  the  primary  purpose  of  history  is  to  interpret  events  long 
past,  the  primary  purpose  of  news  writing  is  to  report  events  for 
pubUc  information.  What  happened?  That  is  all  we  ask  of  the 
newspaper.  The  newspaper  does  not  always  answer  it.  Unfor- 
tunately other  purposes  have  crept  into  our  newspapers  through 
business  competition.  They  too  often,  in  their  attempt  to  be 
entertaining,  fail  in  the  primary  purpose  of  giving  information. 
Yet  many  of  the  methods  which  they  have  developed,  contrary 
a^'they  seem  to  the  principles  of  ordinary  composition,  have 
proved  by  experience  to  be  the  best  for  this  special  purpose. 

255.  Principles  of  news  writing  applicable  to  business  and 
professional  reports.  Nothing  could  be  farther  from  the  purpose 
of  this  brief  chapter  than  to  instruct  students  in  writing  for  the 
newspapers.  JournaHsm  is  a  business,  which  is  learned  only 
by  long  and  hard  experience.  All  that  is  attempted  here  is  to 
show  how  some  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  news  writ- 
ing can  be  and  should  be  appHed  to  ordinary  narratives  of  recent 
events.  The  widest  application  of  these  methods  in  the  practical 
use  of  English  after  graduation  will  be  in  business  and  professional 
letters  and  reports.  Every  man  appointed  to  any  administra- 
tive office,  every  foreman,  manager,  inspector,  supervisor, 
architect,  engineer,  every  person  charged  with  observing  or 
controlling  events,  must  write  news  all  his  Hfe.  It  is  the  com- 
monest kind  of  writing,  commoner  even  than  exposition,  and 
much  commoner  than  argument.     In  all  kinds  of  news  writing. 


COLLEGE  JOURNALISM'  349 

while  interest  governs  the  selection  and  proportion  of  details, 
clearness  and  force  are  the  main  essentials.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  the  news  writer  may  assume  an  initial  interest  on  the  part 
of  the  reader.  His  business  is  not  chiefly  to  attract  people  to 
read  his  report,  but  to  make  the  reading  of  it  easy  and  profitable. 
This  end  he  seeks  by  various  applications  of  the  principle  of 
economy  of  attention. 

256.  Economy  of  attention.  By  demanding  economy  of 
attention  we  mean  that  since  the  human  mind  has  limited 
powers  of  exertion,  and  a  large  natural  inertia,  writers  and 
speakers  must  make  the  lightest  possible  drafts  upon  those 
powers.  They  must  save  wear  and  tear  on  the  reader's  brains. 
The  writer  of  a  textbook  ought  to  practice  economy  of  attention 
in  compassion  for  the  unfortunate  students  who  have  to  read  it. 
The  writer  of  news  will  practice  economy  not  from  motives  of 
compassion  but  in  self-defense.  If  he  does  not,  people  will  not 
read  what  he  has  to  say.  The  next  day  they  are  likely  to  buy 
another  paper.  Of  course  the  principle  of  economy  of  attention 
apphes  to  all  kinds  of  composition,  but  it  is  particularly  im- 
portant in  this  kind  of  narration. 

257.  The  story  thrice  told.  In  obedience  to  this  principle  of 
economy  of  attention,  a  good  news  report  tells  every  story  three 
times.  That  sounds  contradictory,  but  the  custom  is  really 
admirable.  The  newspaper  tells  us  the  story  first  in  the 
head,  secondly  in  the  lead,  and  thirdly  in  the  body  of  the 
article.  The  head  contains  the  most  striking  points  of  the 
story,  so  phrased  that  he  who  runs  may  read.  It  is  true  that 
many  newspapers,  in  their  striving  for  sensational  effects, 
misrepresent  the  news  in  their  heads;  but  many  others  do  not. 
A  glance  over  the  pages  of  the  right  sort  of  paper  gives  the  busy 
reader  a  notion  of  the  events  of  the  day,  even  though  he  may 
not  read  a  line  of  the  news  itself.  If,  attracted  by  the  impor- 
tance or  novelty  of  some  piece  of  news  as  indicated  by  the  head, 
he  begins  to  read  further,  he  finds  in  the  first  paragraph,  often  a 


350  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

single  sentence,  a  compact  statement  of  the  principal  facts. 
This  is  called  the  lead  (rimes  with  deed).  Below  that  comes 
the  body  of  the  story,  perhaps  a  column  or  a  page  of  details. 
These  three  divisions,  the  head,  the  lead,  and  the  body  of  the 
story,  will  be  briefly  considered. 

258.  The  head.  For  a  college  paper  heads  seldom  extend 
beyond  two  "decks";  that  is,  two  distinct  phrases  or  sentences 
in  different  type,  each  occupying  one  or  more  lines,  e.g.: 

CLASS   RUSH  ABOLISHED 

Faculty  Prohibits  Scrap 

on  account  of  Protests 

from  Alumni  and 

Parents 

SUCCESSFUL  SEASON  ENDS 

l^eam   Has  Won   Nine  out 

of  Eleven  Games 

NEW  LABORATORY  OPENED 
Best  Equipment  in  the  State 

For  minor  news  articles,  as  well  as  for  editorials,  the  single 
line  head  is  used.  In  general  it  is  well  in  writing  news  heads 
to  follow  the  rule  of  most  daily  newspapers  that  there  must  be 
a  finite  verb,  a  participle, or  an  infinitive  in  every  head.  Mere 
noun-phrases,  such  as  "Fire  in  the  Dormitory"  and  "Prospects 
for  Baseball"  are  too  tame.  "Juniors  Elect  a  Neutral  Presi- 
dent" is  better  than  "The  Junior  Election."  "Dramatic 
Club  Will  Play  The  Rivals"  is  to  be  preferred  to  "Choice 
of  Play."  The  limitations  of  type  and  the  width  of  columns 
determine  the  exact  choice  of  words  by  the  head  writer,  who 
is  really  writing  for  the  printer.  Students  in  this  course  may 
well  experiment  as  far  as  time  permits  with  short,  apt  heads 
for  their  news  stories,  chiefly  as  an  exercise  in  compact  expression. 


COLLEGE  JOURNALISM  351 

259.  The  lead.  The  first  sentence, or  two  or  three  sentences, 
of  a  good  news  story  will  always  be  found  to  contain  all  the 
important  elements  of  the  entire  article.  The  lead  of  a  fire 
story,  for  example,  will  give  the  place,  time,  cause,  and  effect 
of  the  fire,  including  the  estimated  loss,  all  in  one  sentence. 
If  a  truck  has  collided  with  a  trolley  car  on  the  way  to  the  fire, 
that  will  make  a  second  sentence;  unless  the  colUsion,  resulting 
in  personal  injury  or  death,  is  more  important  than  the  fire,  in 
which  case  the  order  of  the  two  sentences  will  be  reversed. 
Not  until  his  attention  is  called  to  it  does  the  ordinary  news- 
paper reader  fully  appreciate  the  convenience  of  the  lead.  If 
his  time  is  limited,  lie  need  read  no  farther.  If  he  has  been 
misled  by  the  head,  and  finds  that  the  story  is  not  likely  to 
interest  him,  he  is  saved  useless  labor.  While  unskillfully 
written  leads  are  likely  to  make  clumsy  sentences,  the  best 
work  in  this  field  arouses  the  admiration  of  a  discerning  reader. 
By  all  means  let  the  student  in  his  news  stories,  the  business  or 
professional  man  in  his  reports,  adopt  the  principle  of  the  lead. 
Let  his  first  sentences  tell  in  a  nutshell  all  that  there  would  be 
to  tell  if  his  report  had  to  be  made  by  telegram. 

260.  The  body.  After  the  lead  comes  the  body  of  the  story. 
The  second  paragraph  of  the  fire  story  is  quite  likely  to  state 
more  at  length  the  extent  of  the  damage  and  the  danger  to 
surrounding  property.  The  third  paragraph  may  deal  with  the 
cause  of  the  fire,  and  the  circumstances  connected  with  its  dis- 
covery. Following  paragraphs  take  up  minor  details,  inter- 
views with  eye-witnesses,  humorous  or  pathetic  episodes,  and 
other  points,  in  order  of  diminishing  importance.  The  story 
seldom  has  a  strong  close.     It  seems  to  end  in  anticlimax. 

26  L  Details  in  order  of  decreasing  importance.  Readers 
whose  standards  of  excellence  in  composition  are  based  solely 
on  books  and  magazines  are  apt  to  suppose  this  upside-down 
method  of  the  reporter  to  be  a  mere  blunder.  On  the  contrary, 
with  all  the  crudities  evident  in  its  application,  the  principle 


352  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

underlying  the  arrangement  of  a  news  story  is  fundamentally 
sound.  It  is  a  line  example  of  adaptation  to  a  practical  end, 
and  yields  the  maximum  economy  of  attention.  So  striking  is 
the  contrast  between  the  method  of  news  writing  and  the  method 
of  fiction  or  drama,  that  no  one  who  has  once  had  it  called  to 
his  attention  can  fail  to  be  impressed  by  it.  The  novehst  or 
dramatist  introduces  his  characters,  brings  forward  his  dominant 
motive  or  idea,  leads  us  through  scenes  of  growing  suspense 
and  mystery  to  a  baffling  moment  of  crisis;  and  then,  within 
sight  of  the  end,  gives  us  for  the  first  time  the  decisive  act  which 
determines  all  that  follows.  He  values  suspense,  surprise, 
climax;  and  the  pleasure  he  gives  us  is  rather  in  the  seeking 
than  in  the  finding  of  the  decisive  deed.  But  many  readers 
always  turn  to  the  last  chapter  of  a  novel  before  they  can  be 
happy  in  reading  the  rest.  This  instinct  to  learn  "how  it  comes 
out,"  foreign  as  it  may  be  to  the  spirit  of  fiction,  is  normal  in 
the  field  of  news.  Suppose  that  the  fire  story  began  with  the 
sounding  of  the  alarm;  continued  with  the  arrival  of  the  fire 
companies  and  the  spread  of  the  flames;  and  rambled  on  for 
haK  a  column  before  it  revealed  the  final  loss,  and  the  serious 
accident  that  came  with  the  falling  of  the  walls.  Who  would 
buy  such  a  paper?  We  do  not  read  the  papers  for  artistic 
crises;  we  read  them  to  get  the  news,  and  to  get  it  quick. 

262.  Avoid  weak  conclusions.  Some  features  of  news  writ- 
ing, as  practiced  in  the  daily  papers,  are  due  to  the  haste  and 
the  mechanical  problems  involved  in  making  the  paper.  These 
are  not  to  be  imitated  by  the  student,  working  for  practice. 
For  one  thing,  while  all  good  news  stories  must  begin  strongly, 
they  need  not  end  weakly.  If  a  long  newspaper  story  adds 
minor  details  and  ends  in  anticlimax,  it  has  been  printed  in 
that  way  for  one  or  another  of  the  following  reasons:  (i)  be- 
cause something  has  been  cut  from  the  end  to  make  room  for 
late  news;  or  (2)  because  it  has  been  so  written  that  the  con- 
cluding paragraphs  may  be  cut  if  necessary;  or  (3)  because 


COLLEGE  JOURNALISM  353 

incidental  matters  have  been  added  at  the  last  moment  to  fill 
the  allotted  space  held  open  for  the  story;  or  (4)  because  the 
separate  contributions  of  several  reporters,  coming  into  the 
ofiice  at  intervals,  have  been  pieced  together  by  the  copy 
reader,  as  well  as  he  could  in  the  haste  of  his  work,  but  not 
well  enough  to  avoid  imperfections.  A  news  story  written  by 
a  student,  or  any  kind  of  narrative  discussed  in  this  chapter, 
should  end  with  a  point  of  importance,  either  a  restatement  of 
something  hinted  in  the  lead,  or  a  summary  or  comparison 
pertinent  to  the  subject.  The  report  of  a  game,  for  example, 
may  well  end  with  a  summary  of  the  team's  victories  and  de- 
feats up  to  date,  or  a  comparison  of  a  game  with  a  previous 
one,  or  some  similar  point  derived  from  the  material.  A  re- 
port of  progress  by  the  manager  or  inspector  of  some  enterprise 
will  summarize  the  facts  first  in  the  lead,  and  again,  in  a  new 
lorm,  with  a  glance  at  the  future,  in  the  conclusion.  This 
principle  applies  to  long  news  stories.  Short  reports  of  a  few 
paragraphs  need  no  conclusion. 

263.  Avoid  illogical  arrangement.  A  second  respect  in  which 
ordinary  newspaper  writing  has  inevitable  defects,  which  should 
not  be  imitated,  is  in  the  matter  of  coherence.  Owing  to  the 
way  in  which  news  is  gathered  and  put  into  type,  a  long  re- 
port, even  in  a  good  newspaper,  frequently  shows  illogical 
arrangement  of  minor  paragraphs,  lack  of  unity  within  the  par- 
agraphs, repetitions,  and  even  contradictions.  Students'  nar- 
ratives should  observe  the  same  care  to  preserve  the  unity  of 
the  paragraph  and  the  coherent  arrangement  of  material  as  is 
demanded  in  other  kinds  of  writing.  The  order  here,  it  is  true, 
is  from  effect  to  cause,  from  end  to  beginnings;  but  within 
that  reversed  order  the  principle  of  keeping  together  the  things 
that  belong  together  must  be  maintained.  Some  kind  of  out- 
line is  of  course  essential.  It  may  be  a  phrase  outline  rather 
than  a  sentence  outline,  but  it  must  show  clearly  the  order  of 
treatment  and  the  grouping  of  facts  into  their  several  classes. 


354  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

The  reporter  and  the  copy  reader  working  on  the  fire  story 
would,  if  they  could,  put  together  all  the  various  sentences  and 
paragraphs  dealing  with  a  single  topic,  such  as  the  losses  and 
the  insurance.  The  writer  who  is  not  working  under  pressure 
to  catch  an  edition  has  no  excuse  for  incoherence. 

264.  Study  of  actual  newspaper  stories.  In  order  to  discover 
the  merits  and  defects  of  news  writing  as  seen  in  the  daily 
papers,  the  members  of  the  class  may  be  asked  to  cut  out  from 
a  current  paper  a  local  news  story,  not  less  than  two  columns 
long.  It  should  be  local  news,  not  telegraph  news;  and  should 
deal  with  some  event  of  local  importance,  not  with  a  public 
meeting  or  an  interview.  A  large  fire,  a  murder,  a  serious 
accident,  a  robbery,  will  yield  the  best  material.  The  story 
should  be  pasted  on  sheets  of  theme  paper  and  analyzed  by 
marginal  annotations.  Each  main  division  should  be  indi- 
cated by  an  appropriate  word  or  phrase  —  the  lead,  the  main 
facts,  the  effects,  the  causes  or  motives,  the  attendant  circum- 
stances, the  minor  details.  In  a  burglary  story,  for  example, 
after  the  lead  may  be  found  the  loss,  then  the  methods  used  in 
breaking  in  or  cracking  the  safe,  then  clews,  interviews  with 
persons  involved,  and  police  theories.  If  there  has  been  an 
arrest  on  suspicion,  or  a  gun  play,  pursuit,  and  escape,  such 
features  will  be  brought  in  early  in  the  story.  Students  should 
note  all  paragraphs  lacking  in  unity,  and  all  sentences  or  para- 
graphs out  of  place.  A  brief  criticism  at  the  end  should  in- 
clude, if  necessary,  an  outline  for  the  rearrangement  of  the 
material  to  remedy  incoherence. 

265.  College  life  yields  few  big  stories.  Student  practice  in 
news  writing  can  seldom  be  applied  to  news  events  of  the  ordi- 
nary kind.  Since  news  must  be  based  on  personal  knowledge 
or  investigation,  the  only  events  commonly  available  are  those 
connected  with  college  life.  Most  of  these  are  neither  abso- 
lutely nor  relatively  of  suflScient  importance  to  demand  reports 
of  more  than  half  a  column  in  a  newspaper.     Frequently  they 


COLLEGE  JOURNALISM  355 

are  not  worth  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  column,  or  a  single 
paragraph.  Nevertheless,  the  same  principles  govern  the 
short  story  as  the  long  one.  The  first  sentence  in  every  case 
must  contain  the  essential  facts,  the  second  the  principal 
attendant  circumstances,  and  the  rest  of  the  narrative  must 
take  up  the  more  detailed  facts  in  some  logical  order. 

Two  assignments  in  news  writing  may  be  given  to  the  class, 
one  being  any  kind  of  news  story  except  athletic  events,  the 
other  being  a  report  of  a  game;  or  a  choice  may  be  allowed 
between  the  two.  For  the  first  assignment  such  topics  as  the 
following  are  suggested: 

1.  A  class  business  meeting, 

2.  A  class  dinner,  or  dance. 

3.  A  lecture  or  address  before  a  college  audience. 

4.  Beginning,  progress,  or  completion  of  a  new  building. 

5.  Changes  in  the  curriculum  as  found  in  the  catalogue. 

6.  New  faculty  appointments. 

7.  Musical  club  news. 

8.  Dramatic  club  news. 

9.  Student  finances. 

10.     Plans  for  a  convention  or  other  public  meeting. 

It  may  be  found  necessary  to  select  for  the  reports  events 
several  weeks  old,  in  case  there  is  a  scarcity  of  real  news  about 
the  campus.  Reports  and  articles  of  a  sort  designed  for  a  col- 
lege annual,  rather  than  for  a  weekly  newspaper,  will  serve 
quite  as  well.  In  all  sorts  of  news  writing,  absolute  accuracy 
in  names  and  dates  is  required.  It  is  inexcusable  to  misspell 
personal  names,  or  write  wrong  initials,  when  a  copy  of  the 
college  catalogue  is  available.  Vagueness  in  dates  is  also  im- 
proper. The  day  of  the  month  should  be  given,  rather  than 
phrases  such  as  "last  Tuesday,"  "last  week." 

266.  Athletic  reporting.  Athletic  reporting  is  a  branch  of 
news  writing  more  commonly  done  by  students,  and  more 
wretchedly  done,  than  any  other.     The  impression  seems  to 


356  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

prevail  that  a  special  dialect  is  necessary.  Not  the  technical 
terminology  of  the  game,  but  a  curious  jargon  of  newspaper  slang 
is  affected  by  college  reporters,  in  weak  imitation  of  the  sporting 
editor's  picturesque  style.  A  pitcher  is  always  a  "hurler"  or  a 
"twirler,"  a  batsman  is  a  "swatsmith,"  a  first  baseman  "holds 
down  the  initial  sack,"  a  game  is  "pulled  off,"  or  "staged," 
football  players  are  "pigskin  chasers,"  a  rival  team  is  "theblue," 
or  "the  green,"  or  "the  Windy  City  aggregation."  This  sort  of 
thing  is  confidently  believed  to  impart  an  exhilaration  to  the 
reader  which  will  heighten  the  joys  of  victory  and  ease  the 
pangs  of  defeat. 

Now  there  is  a  baseball  language,  indigenous  to  the  soil  of 
the  diamond,  which  is  quite  as  invigorating  as  the  great  Amer- 
ican game  itself.  As  written  by  the  experts  of  the  New  York 
and  Chicago  newspapers,  this  language  (which  is  not  English) 
is  picturesque  and  highly  diverting.  But  the  college  ath- 
letic dialect,  as  written  by  undergraduates,  is  no  more  like  the 
baseball  language  than  it  is  like  English.  Observation  proves 
that  spirited  athletic  reporting,  without  clumsy  straining  for 
humorous  effects,  is  both  possible  and  readable.  The  technical 
terms  of  a  game  are  always  proper.  The  error  to  be  avoided 
is  the  labored  substitution  of  roundabout  phrases  for  simple 
nouns  and  verbs.  A  little  experimenting  will  demonstrate  to 
a  class  that  to  report  a  game  in  straightforward  sentences  and 
plain  English  phrases  is  neither  dull  nor  difficult. 

267.  Feature  stories.  A  sort  of  writing  which  is  not  strictly 
news,  and  yet  is  essential  to  the  making  of  a  newspaper,  is  the 
writing  of  special  articles,  descriptive  or  expository  in  nature, 
concerning  matters  of  current  interest.  The  term  "feature 
story"  as  used  in  a  newspaper  office  covers  a  wide  variety  of 
readable  material  {printed  primarily  because  it  is  interesting. 
As  applied  to  a  college  paper  it  would  include  all  such  subjects 
as  the  followiner: 


COLLEGE  JOURNALISM  357 

1.  Unusual  ways  in  which  some  students  earn  their  living. 

2.  Foreign  students  and  what  they  think  of  American  customs. 

3.  Human  nature  as  observed  in  the  college  commons. 

4.  Curious  and  rare  books  in  the  college  library. 

5.  The  per  capita  cost  of  instruction  in  this  college. 

6.  Alumni  who   have  become   prominent  in  a  certain   profession,  or 
public  life. 

7.  Humors  of  the  lost  and  found  bureau. 

8.  What  does  the  English  department  do  with  old  themes? 

9.  New  pieces  of  costly  apparatus  in  scientific  laboratories. 

10.      Geographical  distribution    of   students  according   to   the   counties 
and  states  represented,  compared  year  by  year. 

Such  articles  are  usually  a  column  or  more  in  length,  and  if  well 
written  and  prominently  displayed  are  likely  to  have  as  many 
readers  as  the  news  of  the  week.  Most  of  them  require  more 
time  for  their  preparation  than  an  unimportant  news  story,  and 
hence  they  are  likely  to  be  neglected  by  the  reporters  even  when 
specially  assigned.  Nevertheless  no  good  weekly  paper  can 
be  conducted,  especially  in  a  small  college,  without  a  regular 
supply  of  material  of  this  kind,  to  be  run  when  news  is  short,  or 
to  be  condensed  and  used  as  "fillers."  Freshmen  ambitious  to 
win  an  appointment  on  the  staff  could  not  do  better  than  to  try 
their  hands  at  feature  stories  on  topics  appropriate  to  the  time 
and  place,  and  submitting  them  to  the  proper  persons. 

268.  Interviews.  College  papers  use  interviews  chiefly  to 
get  the  views  of  faculty  members  and  prominent  alumni  on  ques- 
tions of  college  interest.  Several  points  should  be  borne  in 
mind  in  attempting  to  write  an  interview.  In  the  first  place, 
the  interviewer  should  know  exactly  what  questions  he  desires  to 
ask,  in  order  not  to  waste  the  time  and  the  patience  of  the 
person  interviewed  by  clumsy  attempts  to  make  himself  clear. 
In  the  second  place,  he  should  take  accurate  notes,  being  very 
careful  not  to  misrepresent  by  any  change  of  phraseology  the 
substance  of  what  was  said.  In  the  third  place,  he  should 
respect  scrupulously  any  such  caution  as  "Don't  write  this 


358  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

down,"  or  "I  don't  care  to  be  quoted  on  that  point."  In  the 
fourth  place,  in  writing  up  the  interview,  he  should  be  careful  to 
make  it  clear  that  the  initiative  came  entirely  from  the  reporter's 
or  the  editor's  side;  sometimes  reporters  write  up  an  interview 
in  such  a  way  that  it  reads  as  if  the  man  had  tried  to  advertise 
his  opinions  by  getting  them  into  print.  As  to  the  form  of  the 
interview,  it  is  customary  to  print  most  of  the  answers  in  the 
form  of  direct  quotation,  inside  quotation  marks;  and  on  this 
account  it  is  always  better,  when  practicable,  to  submit  the  copy 
to  the  person  interviewed  before  it  goes  to  the  printer. 

269.  Editorial  writing.  The  editorial  page  of  a  college 
paper  is  the  only  proper  place  for  the  expression  of  editorial 
opinion;  news  stories  should  be  free  from  bias,  and  no  coloring 
for  or  against  any  person  or  organization  or  policy  has  any  place 
on  the  news  pages.  Since  expressions  of  opinion  are,  or  ought  to 
be,  limited  to  this  one  department  of  the  paper,  it  is  all  the  more 
important  that  they  should  be  maturely  considered  and  well 
written.  On  the  contrary,  the  editorial  articles,  especially 
the  shorter  ones,  are  often  more  carelessly  and  hurriedly  put 
together  than  anything  else  in  the  paper.  A  good  editorial 
should  seldom  exceed  three  or  four  paragraphs  in  length.  It 
should  display  good  temper,  good  judgment,  and  good  style. 
Sarcasm  and  abuse  are  wholly  out  of  place.  Irony  is  always  liable 
to  be  misunderstood.  Partisanship  in  matters  of  college 
politics  or  athletic  policy  is  dangerous.  The  guiding  principle 
should  always  be  an  unselfish  and  enlightened  regard  for  the 
best  and  highest  interests  of  the  college,  and  a  tolerant  spirit 
toward  minorities. 

A  tendency  exists  to  make  the  editorial  page  one  long  grumble 
against  people  and  things  not  favored  by  the  editors.  Earnest 
advocacy  of  reform  does  not  require  the  maintenance  of  a 
"knocking"  policy.  Words  of  commendation  for  good  work 
unselfishly  done  by  inconspicuous  members  of  the  college 
community  are  always  ajipropriate.     Notes  of  encouragement 


COLLEGE  JOURNALISM  359 

regarding  marks  of  improvement  in  any  branch  of  college 
affairs  are  admirable  material.  Such  topics  as  the  two  last 
named  are  peculiarly  suited  to  short  editorial  paragraphs  from 
one  to  three  sentences  long  —  a  sort  of  "copy"  always  welcome 
to  the  make-up  man,  and  invariably  read  with  attention. 
Indeed  it  may  be  said  that  the  actual  effect  of  an  editorial 
article,  if  judged  by  the  number  and  the  interest  of  its  readers, 
is  in  inverse  ratio  to  its  length.  Perhaps  nowhere  in  the  field 
of  college  English  is  it  possible  to  accomplish  more  by  a  few 
words  fitly  spoken  than  in  a  short,  pithy,  generous,  loyal  para- 
graph on  the  editorial  page  of  a  paper  which  has  won  the  respect 
of  the  college. 

Suggested  Assignments 

Assignment  85.  Read  sections  253-264.  Select  from  a  daily  newspaper 
an  important  local  news  story  and  analyze  it  as  suggested  in  section  264, 
bringing  the  copy  to  class. 

Assignment  86.  Read  sections  265  and  266.  Write  a  college  news  story 
based  upon  some  event  of  the  past  two  weeks;  either  a  report  of  a  game  or 
one  of  the  other  kinds  of  news  of  which  examples  are  given  in  section  265. 

Assignment  87.  Write,  in  the  style  of  a  news  story,  a  history  of  the  fresh- 
man class  up  to  date,  as  if  for  publication  in  a  college  annual.  The  length 
should  not  exceed  six  to  eight  hundred  words.  Early  adventures,  the  class 
dinner,  class  athletics,  and  similar  topics  will  furnish  the  material. 

Assignment  88.  Read  sections  267-269.  Write  an  editorial  article 
suitable  for  a  college  paper. 

Assignment  89.  Write  another  editorial  article;  or  four  detached 
editorial  paragraphs.  This  is  your  best  and  last  chance  as  a  freshman  to  say 
what  you  think  of  the  rest  of  the  college.  Say  it  kindly,  but  firmly;  and 
say  it  in  as  good  English  as  you  can  command.  By  "good  English"  is 
meant  the  right  English  for  the  occasion. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
PROGRESS   AND    PROSPECT 

270.  Taking  account  of  stock.  After  nine  months  of  college 
the  freshman  takes  account  of  stock.  What  more  do  you  know, 
what  more  can  you  do,  than  in  September?  How  much  better 
can  the  mind  serve  the  will,  and  the  tongue  serve  the  mind? 
How  much  more  efficient  is  the  process  that  translates  ideas  into 
speech?  Every  student  knows  in  his  heart  that  these  are 
among  the  things  that  count.  They  are  not  confined  to  rhetoric. 
They  cover  every  study  of  the  college  year  —  mathematics, 
science,  foreign  languages,  and  the  rest.  All  were  designed  to 
sharpen  the  wits.  All  were  intended  to  shorten  the  time  that 
it  takes  for  a  man  to  see  things  accurately,  to  reason  soundly, 
and  to  act  efficiently.  It  is  a  good  thing  for  students  to  take 
an  annual  inventory  at  the  close  of  a  year's  business. 

The  first  essay  of  the  year  was  an  autobiography  for  the 
information  of  the  instructor.  The  last  essay  may  well  be  a 
personal  inventory  for  the  information  of  the  student.  Let  us 
assume  that  the  freshman  is  indebted  to  some  older  friend  for 
the  original  suggestion  that  led  him  to  come  to  college,  or  for 
pecuniary  assistance,  or  for  sympathy  and  helpful  advice  in 
some  difficulty.  To  that  friend  what  kind  of  report  can  the 
freshman  make  during  the  week  before  the  June  examinations? 
What  progress  can  he  report,  and  to  what  prospects  can  he 
honestly  look  forward?  The  title  of  this  valedictory  theme 
may  be  something  like  "What  the  Year  Has  Meant  to  Me," 
or  "Profit  and  Loss,"  or  "Assets  and  Liabilities."  It  will  be 
exposition,  description,  and  narrative  all  combined,  with  per- 
haps a  bit   of  argument  thrown  in;  a  kind  of  "Apologia  pro 

360 


PROGRESS  AND   PROSPECT  361 

Vita  Sua,"  or  "Confessions  of  an  Inquiring  Mind,"  or  some- 
thing of  that  sort.  Here  is  the  chance  to  say  all  the  hard 
things  one  has  been  saving  up  against  the  day  of  judgment; 
the  chance,  too,  for  certain  discreet  confessions  of  dawning 
humility  and  regretful  ignorance.  Humor  will  temper  it,  for 
a  freshman's  life  is  an  intrinsically  humorous  thing,  if  he  did 
but  know  it.  Reminiscence  will  keep  it  free  from  triviality,  for 
nine  months  are  gone,  and  how  little  there  is  to  show  for  them! 
There  will  be  no  whining,  no  boasting,  and  no  sentimentality. 
The  young  man  says  to  himself,  "Nine  months  gone;  at  least 
five  hundred  dollars  in  real  money  paid  out;  and  what  for? 
What  next?"  If  he  will  recall  the  fact  that  every  freshman 
costs  the  college  at  least  a  hundred  dollars  more  than  he  pays 
in  tuition  fees,  which  represents  interest  on  the  capital  that 
society  has  invested  in  him  as  a  prospective  college  man,  it  may 
help  him  to  be  honest  with  himself.  "The  first  and  worst  of 
all  frauds  is  to  cheat  oneself." 

Naturally  a  man  will  not  put  everything  he  thinks  about  it 
on  paper.  He  would  be  a  fool  to  do  that,  for  some  of  the  best 
things  we  ever  say  are  the  hard  words  we  whisper  to  ourselves 
between  clenched  teeth  when  nobody  is  around.  But,  to 
the  end  that  the  freshman's  June  inventory  shall  be  fairly 
complete,  the  following  suggestive  questions  are  offered: 

271.     The  trial  balance  sheet. 

1.  What  have  I  really  learned  this  year  in  the  college  classrooms? 

2.  What  have  I  learned  from  association  with  classmates? 

3.  What  have  I  learned  from  outside  reading,  apart  from  textbooks? 

4.  What  have  I  learned  of  the  methods  and  ideals  of  scholars? 

5.  How  much  more  at  home  am  I  in  a  library,  as  a  storehouse  of  facts 
and  a  center  of  intellectual  interests? 

6.  How  much  more  do  I  know  and  care  about  the  government,  the 
people,  the  progress  of  the  city  and  the  country  1  live  in? 

7.  What  more  can  T  do  with  my  mind  than  I  could  do  last  fall? 

8.  How  much  longer  can  T  hold  my  attention  on  the  words  of  a  speaker? 

9.  How  much  better  can  I  concentrate  my  mind  on  a  book  and  grasp 
the  substance  of  what  I  am  reading? 


362  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 

10.  How  much  more  capable  am  I  of  thinking,  reading,  and  writing 
amid  distractions? 

11.  How  far  have  I  advanced  in  the  power  to  attack  a  problem,  to  face 
new  facts  and  new  situations? 

12.  How  much  less  are  my  judgments  of  men  and  ideas  the  result  of 
prejudice  and  impulse,  bow  much  more  of  reason? 

13.  How  much  better  able  am  I  to  stand  alone  in  a  conscientious  opinion, 
and  to  subordinate  prejudice  in  order  to  cooperate  with  others? 

14.  Can  I  make  myself  understood  in  speech  and  writing  better  than 
I  could  last  fall? 

15.  Can  I  talk  in  such  a  way  as  to  defend  myself  when  I  know  I  am 
right,  to  persuade  other  men  when  I  know  they  are  wrong,  and  to  make 
myself  count  in  a  crowd? 

16.  Can  I  name  the  weak  points  in  my  English, —  grammar,  sjielling, 
pronunciation,  vocabulary,  clear  thinking, —  and  have  I  any  j^lan  for 
correcting  them? 

17.  How  many  hours  a  day  have  I  wasted  this  year?  Is  there  any 
way  to  waste  less  next  year? 

18.  What  new  interests  have  developed  during  the  year? 

19.  What  change  has  the  year  made  in  my  plans  for  the  future? 

20.  Has  the  spirit  of  the  college  got  hold  of  me?  If  so,  what  is  it,  and 
what  has  it  done  for  me?     What  can  I  do  for  it? 

These  are  not  unsuitable  questions  for  one  who  has  under 
taken  to  Uve  for  a  time  the  intellectual  life  in  a  society  of 
scholars.  They  may  be  singularly  unfit  for  some  circles  in 
which  young  men  find  themselves  after  a  few  months  of  drift- 
ing. But  a  man  who  faces,  even  once  a  year,  the  problem  of 
his  relative  efficiency,  as  a  product  and  as  a  producer,  is  not 
likely  to  waste  much  time  in  vain  regrets.  He  is  too  busy 
considering  how  he  may  cease  to  be  wholly  an  effect,  and  be- 
come in  some  small  degree  a  cause.  Having  wearied  of  regard- 
ing himself  as  the  helpless  and  hapless  victim  of  a  system,  he 
decided  to  take  a  hand  himself.  Self-direction  begins.  The 
will  wakes.  Purpose  begins  to  push,  where  before  the  system 
has  had  to  pull.  An  enlightened  self-interest,  or  an  exalted 
altruism,  may  be  equally  effectual  in  leading  a  student  to  begin 
to  study.     That,  just  at  present,  is  his  real  business.     If  either 


PROGRESS  AND   PROSPECT  363 

in  learning  or  in  power  he  feels  himself  radically  wanting  as  he 
reviews  theyear,  thepath  of  opportunity  lies  open  before  him  still. 

Rhetoric,  in  short,  is  inseparable  from  life.  It  stands  for 
human  efficiency.  Strip  it  of  all  forms  and  customs,  and  it 
proves  to  be  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  mind  in  communi- 
cation with  other  minds  for  a  desired  end.  With  his  hands  a 
man  works  deeds  —  changes  in  the  position  of  matter;  with  his 
brain  he  works  problems  — •  changes  in  the  relation  of  his  own 
ideas;  with  tongue  and  pen  he  shares  his  deeds,  his  problems, 
his  knowledge,  and  his  sympathies,  with  his  fellows,  thereby 
working  a  change  in  the  relation  of  ideas  in  other  minds.  These 
three  are  all  the  kinds  of  work  that  a  man  can  do  in  this  world : 
deeds,  ideas,  expression.  Therefore  a  command  of  good  writing, 
and  especially  of  clear  and  effective  speaking,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant single  element  of  education  in  a  social  democracy.  Lan- 
guage that  is  but  a  borrowed  garment  will  fail  a  man  in  some 
emergency.  Language  that  is  the  man  himself,  made  vocal 
by  the  mystery  of  words,  links  him  with  the  past,  the  present, 
and  the  future:  with  the  inheritance  of  the  past,  in  history  and 
literature;  with  the  duty  of  the  present,  in  social  efficiency;  with 
the  hope  of  the  future,  in  poetry  and  prophecy  and  prayer. 

At  the  end,  as  at  the  beginning,  let  it  be  remembered  that  we 
cannot  all  be  eloquent,  but  we  can  all  be  clear;  we  cannot  all 
master  language  as  a  fine  art,  but  we  can  all  use  it  as  a  fine 
tool.  College  men  in  all  their  work  will  do  well  to  remember 
that  in  the  long  run,  while  deeds,  ideas,  and  ideals  are  the 
things  that  count  most,  they  are  all  limited  and  interpreted 
and  judged  by  words.  Constant  vigilance,  self-criticism,  and 
patient  practice  are  the  only  means  of  attaining  excellence.  No 
labor  is  too  great  that  is  necessary  to  the  mastefy  of  a  good 
English  style. 

Suggested  Assignment 

Assignment  90.  Read  Chapter  XVIII  and  write  a  review  of  the  year's 
work  of  the  sort  indicated  by  the  list  of  questions. 


GLOSSARY 

OF  COMMON  ERRORS   IN  SYNTAX  AND   DICTION* 

All  during.  In  such  colloquial  phrases  as  "aU  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  year,"  it  is  better  to  say  "during  all  the  latter  part,"  or  "all  through 
the  latter  part." 

All  right.     Two  words;  there  is  no  such  word  as  alright. 

Along  this  line.  A  hackneyed  expression  which  should  be  avoided.  Use 
synonymous  phrases  appropriate  to  the  particular  sentence;  e.g.,  "about 
this,"  "on  this  point,"  "in  this  direction." 

And  which.  The  relative  which  or  who  should  never  be  preceded  by  and 
except  when  there  is  another  relative  clause  introduced  by  which  or  who 
earlier  in  the  sentence.  The  error  is  a  violation  of  the  principle  of  parallel 
structure.  Incorrect:  "This  is  a  serious  situation,  and  which  could  not 
have  been  foreseen."  Omit  the  and,  or  rewrite  the  sentence  in  parallel 
construction,  e.g.:  "This  is  a  situation  which  is  more  serious  than  appears 
at  first  sight,  and  which  could  not  liav^e  been  foreseen." 

Antecedents,  (i)  A  pronoun  should  never  be  used  when  there  is  any 
uncertainty  as  to  which  of  two  or  more  preceding  substantives  is  the  ante- 
cedent.    Repeat  the  substantive,  or  recast  the  sentence. 

(2)  The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  must  always  be  a  word  or  phrase  actually 
expressed  in  the  text,  not  a  whole  clause  or  sentence.  Incorrect:  "The  bill  re- 
mained unpaid  for  more  than  two  years,  which  injured  the  credit  of  the  class 
and  of  the  college."  Substitute  which  delay  or  which  fact,  or  recast  the 
sentence. 

(3)  A  pronoun  must  agree  in  number  with  its  antecedent.  After  one, 
every  one,  everybody,  plural  pronouns  are  incorrect. 

Anxious.  Suggests  the  idea  of  painful  suspense;  should  not  be  used  in 
place  of  (/e.j;>(?«^,  eager,  for  desire  unacompanied  by  apprehension.  Correct: 
"She  was  anxious  that  the  dinner  should  be  a  social  success" —  that  is,  she 
was  somewhat  worried  lest  it  might  be  a  failure.     Incorrect:  "I  am  anxious 

*  This  list  includes,  in  addition  to  common  errors,  a  few  words  not  erroneous  but 
often  confused  with  others  which  they  resemble  in  form  or  in  meaning.  Certain  of  the 
most  common  errors  already  treated  in  the  body  of  the  book  are  here  repeated  for 
emphasis  and  for  convenience  of  reference  (e.g.,  so,  due  to,  whom,  one  of  the).  Space  is 
left  at  the  end  for  additional  notes  on  errors  discussed  in  class. 


3^^  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

to  get  a  copy  of  that  book"  (should  be  "I  am  eager"  or  "I  wish  very  much"). 

Any.     See  Some. 

Any  place,  some  place.     Illiterate  expressions  for  anywhere,  somavhere. 

Anywheres,  somewheres,  nowheres.  Illiterate  expressions  for  anywhere, 
somewhere,  nowhere. 

Article  repeated  in  a  series.  The  article,  if  used  before  the  first  sub- 
stantive in  a  series,  must  be  repeated  before  each  later  substantive  in  the  scries 
denoting  a  distinct  person  or  thing.  Correct:  ".\  freshman,  a  sophomore, 
and  a  junior  were  appointed  on  the  committee."  "The  French,  the  Italians, 
and  Ihe  Japanese  agreed  to  this  restriction."  Incorrect:  "A  man,  woman, 
and  child  were  rescued  from  the  wreck."  "The  infantry  and  artillery 
cooperated  in  this  movement." 

As.  (i)  .4^  should  not  be  used  for  tliat  or  whether  after  don't  know. 
Incorrect:  "I  don't  know  as  I  can  finish  it  to-day."     Use  whether. 

(2)  As  should  not  be  used  for  such  as.  Incorrect:  "Many  poets  have 
used  this  sUinza,  as  Tennyson,  Swinburne,  and  Morris."     Use  si<ch  as. 

(3)  As  should  not  be  excessively  used  in  colloquial  Enghsh,  nor  used  at 
all  in  formal  English,  in  the  sense  of  since,  because,  for.  Crude:  "The  men 
were  tired  out,  as  they  had  worked  steadily  all  day."  Better /or;  or,  "after 
working  steadily  all  day." 

As  much  ...  if  not  more.  The  straddling  construction  in  which  the 
speaker  hesitates  between  equality  and  superiority  usually  results  in 
awkwardness,  and  often  in  errors.  Incorrect:  "The  team  is  as  strong,  if 
not  stronger  than  it  was  last  year."  A  correct  but  awkward  sentence  can 
be  made  by  inserting  as  after  strong;  but  this  addition  throws  an  unpleasant 
emphasis  upon  the  words  as  and  than.  Better:  "The  team  is  as  strong  as  it 
was  last  year,  if  not  stronger." 

As  per.  Except  in  condensed  commercial  memoranda,  prefer  according 
to.  As  per  is  not  desirable  in  business  letters,  and  not  permissible  in  general 
writing.     See  Per. 

As  though.  This  expression,  equivalent  to  as  if,  has  considerable  sup- 
port in  usiige,  but  the  more  logical  as  if  is  preferable.  A  condition,  not  a 
concession,  is  implied. 

As  well  as.  (i)  An  adjective  phrase  introduced  by  as  wdl  as,  and  form- 
ing •a  part  of  the  complete  subject  of  a  sentence,  does  not  alter  a  singular 
simple  subject  to  a  plural.  Correct:  "The  manager,  as  well  as  all  the 
directors,  was  ignorant  of  the  real  situation." 

(2)  An  adverbial  phrase  introduced  by  as  well  as  followed  by  a  participle 
frequently  leads  to  awkwardness.  Awkward:  "'This  arrangement  insures 
his  prompt  attenticm  to  the  jiroblem,  as  well  as  leaving  him  free  to  choose  his 
own  method  of  dealing  with  it."     Better:  "This  arrangement  insures  his 


GLOSSARY  367 

prompt  attention  to  the  problem,  at  the  same  time  leaving  him  free"  (or  "leav- 
ing him  free,  nevertheless,")-  The  sentence  may  be  made  compound,  the 
second  clause  beginning  "and  yet  leaves  him  free."  Still  another  remedy 
would  be  to  change  the  principal  verb  insures  to  a  participle,  in  which  case 
as  well  as  joins  two  participles  in  parallel  construction:  "This  arrangement, 
insuring  his  prompt  attention  to  the  problem,  as  well  as  leaving  him  free  to 
choose  his  own  method  of  dealing  with  it,  was  finally  adopted."  The  error 
is  particularly  glaring  when  the  participle  being  follows  as  well  as.  Awkward: 
"The  car  is  capable  of  excellent  work,  as  well  as  being  economical  in  the 
consumption  of  gasoline."  Omit  being,  or  use  the  coordinating  phrases 
not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 

Awful,  awfully.  Even  in  colloquial  English,  awful,  awfully  should  be 
sparingly  used  for  extreme,  extremely,  very.  The  objection  is  not  merely 
that  the  word  properly  means  "inspiring  awe,"  for  colloquial  speech  is 
always  seeking  picturesque  intensives;  but  rather  that  by  overuse  the 
word  has  lost  both  its  picturesqueness  and  its  intensity.  To  restore  its 
meaning  is  impossible;  to  use  it  less  frequently,  however,  will  strengthen 
rather  than  weaken  speech. 

Back.     See  hi  back  of. 

Beside,  besides.  The  two  forms  are  often  used  interchangeably,  but 
there  is  a  tendency  to  differentiate  as  follows:  beside  as  a  preposition  mean- 
ing at  the  side  of  (in  space) ;  besides  as  a  preposition  meaning  in  addition  to; 
and  besides  as  an  adverb  meaning  moreover. 

Between.  Derived  from  a  word  meaning  two  (compare  twain),  between  is 
properly  used  when  only  two  persons  or  things  are  involved.  For  three  or 
more,  use  among.  Between  may,  however,  be  used  of  three  or  more  when  it 
indicates  several  distinct  relations  between  pairs  included  in  the  larger 
number.  Correct:  "Some  bad  feeling  arose  between  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Italy."  But  the  idea  is  more  precisely  expressed  thus:  "Some  bad  feel- 
ing arose  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  between  France  and  Italy." 

But.  (i)  But  with  the  meaning  except  is  a  preposition,  followed  by  the 
objective  case.     Correct:  "There  was  no  one  there  but  us." 

(2)  But  is  superfluous  before  that  in  the  expression  tio  doubt  that.  But 
what  after  no  doubt  is  illiterate.     (See  No  doubt  that.) 

Can't  seem.  An  illogical  colloquiaHsm.  Undesirable:  "We  can't  seem 
to  understand  each  other."  Better:  "Apparently  we  can't  understand 
each  other,"  or,  "We  seem  to  be  unable  to  understand  each  other." 

Could  of,  should  of,  would  of.  Illiterate  blunders  for  could  have,  should 
Itave,  would  Jmve. 

Dangling  participle,  dangling  gerund.  A  participle  should  not  be  used 
without  a  substantive,  expressed  in  the  sentence,  to  which  it  refers  or 


368  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 

belongs.  Incorrect:  "Crossing  the  street,  a  group  of  strikers  was  found 
standing  in  front  of  the  factory."  Correct:  "Crossing  the  street,  we  (or, 
the  policemen)  found  a  group  of  strikers  standing  in  front  of  the  factor}-." 
The  best  usage  extends  the  same  rule  to  gerunds  (verbal  nouns  in  -iug), 
although  in  some  cases  exceptions  may  be  defended.  Undesirable:  "After 
cleaning  the  shaft,  it  was  replaced  in  the  engine."  Who  cleaned  the 
shaft?  Better:  "After  cleaning  the  shaft,  the  mechanic  replaced  it  in  the 
engine,"  or,  "After  the  shaft  had  been  cleaned,  it  was  replaced." 

Data.  "These  data  are" — never  "This  data  is."  The  word  is  the 
])lural  of  datum,  and  means  "things  given."  Widespread  use  of  data  as  a 
singular  noun  has  not  altered  the  fact  that  it  indicates  an  essentially  plural 
idea  —  figures,  materials,  statistics,  distinct  items  of  information  collected 
for  a  definite  purpose. 

Deals.     Should  be  followed  by  icith,  not  by  mi. 

Dickens's,Wells's.  Proper  names  ending  in  s  make  the  possessive  usually 
by  adding  '5  (pronounced  as  a  separate  syllable,  as  if  spelled  Dickens-es) . 
Sometimes,  for  euphony,  such  possessives  are  made  by  adding  an  apostrophe 
after  the  last  letter  of  the  name  (Dickens',  pronounced  like  the  nominative). 
To  place  an  apostrophe  before  the  last  letter  of  such  a  name  (Dicken's)  is 
about  the  stupidest  and  least  excusable  blunder  in  punctuation  that  any 
intelligent  person  can  make. 

Different.  Properly  followed  by  from,  not  by  tha}i.  Correct:  "The 
situation  is  different  now  from  what  it  was  ten  years  ago,"  or,  "The  situation 
is  different  now  from  that  which  existed  ten  years  ago."  Incorrect:  "The 
situation  is  different  now  than  it  was  ten  years  ago."  The  usage  in  Great 
Britain  is  different  to,  seldom  found  in  this  country. 

Doubt.     See  No  doubt  that. 

Due  to.  Due  is  an  adjective  (except  in  referring  to  points  of  the  com- 
pass —  due  north,  due  west.)  Therefore  it  may  be  used  only  in  the  three  ways 
in  which  an  adjective  is  used:  (i)  as  an  attributive  adjective  before  the 
substantive  — "due  process  of  law,"  "in  due  time;"  (2)  beginning  an  adjec- 
tive phrase  following  and  modifying  a  substantive — "This  delaj^,  due  to 
heavy  storms,  involved  serious  consequences;"  (3)  as  a  predicate  adjective 
after  the  verb  to  be — "This  delay,  which  was  due  to  heavy  storms,  involved 
serious  consequences."  In  other  words,  due,  being  an  adjective,  must 
stand  in  some  grammatical  relation  to  a  noun  expressed  in  the  sentence.  It 
is  incorrect  to  use  due  to  as  introducing  an  adverbial  clause,  modifying  not  a 
substantive  but  a  veib.  Incorrect:  "Due  to  heavy  storms,  the  ship  was 
delayed."  For  an  adverbial  phrase  indicating  the  cause  of  an  action  use  one 
of  the  compound  prci)ositions  owini;  to,  because  of,  on  account  of.  Often, 
however,  the  simjilest  correction  is  to  change  the  form  of  the  sentence;  e.g.: 


GLOSSARY  369 

"The  ship  was  delayed  by  heavy  storms,"  or,  "Heavy  storms  delayed  the 
ship." 

Enormity.  Enormity  means  monstrous  wickedness;  enormousness  means 
monstrous  size. 

Etc.  This  abbreviation  should  never  be  used  of  persons;  it  means  "and 
other  things."  It  should  never  be  used  in  formal  or  literary  Enghsh.  In- 
correct: "The  district  was  inhabited  chiefly  by  Poles,  Bohemians,  Russians, 
etc."  Omit  etc.,  and  insert  and  before  Russians;  or  substitute  for  the  abbre- 
viation some  such  phrase  as  "and  other  immigrants  from  central  and  eastern 
Europe." 

Every  so  often.  A  crude,  provincial  expression.  Substitute  such 
phrases  as  from  time  to  time,  now  and  then,  at  regular  intervals,  frequently; 
or,  in  colloquial  English,  every  little  while. 

Feel  bad,  badly.  After  feel  use  a  predicate  adjective,  not  an  adverb. 
"I  felt  bad"  is  colloquially  correct,  meaning  "My  sensations  were  unpleas- 
ant." This  might  refer  either  to  physical  sensations  or  to  emotions  of  sym- 
pathy or  regret.  "I  felt  very  bad  about  it" —  I  felt  sorry,  not  sorrowfully. 
The  adverb  badly  after  felt  would  mean  "My  sense  of  feeling  was  bad,  mis- 
leading, inaccurate."  Notice  that  in  the  correct  expressions  "I  feel  well," 
"I  feel  ill,"  the  words  tvell  and  ///  are  adjectives,  not  adverbs. 

Financial,  pecuniary.  Financial  has  to  do  with  national,  commercial, 
or  large  personal  transactions  involving  considerable  sums  of  money.  It 
is  incorrectly  used  of  ordinary  personal  income  and  expenditure.  Incorrect : 
"Financial  reasons  compelled  him  to  leave  college."  Better:  "Lack  of 
money"  or  "Pecuniary  difficulties." 

Former,  latter.  These  words  almost  always  cause  some  obscurity  in  a 
sentence;  or  at  least  a  vexatious  delay  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  who  must 
look  back  in  order  to  see  which  is  which.  Usually  it  is  better  to  repeat  the 
substantives.     Repetition  is  never  out  of  place  when  it  aids  clearness. 

Funny.  Means  ludicrous.  Not  to  be  used,  even  in  colloquial  English, 
for  strange,  queer,  odd,  surprising,  unless  the  situation  is  such  as  to  suggest 
laughter. 

Farther,  further.  The  words  are  often  used  interchangeably,  but  there 
is  a  tendency  to  restrict  farther  to  the  literal  sense  of  greater  distance,//<T/Aer 
to  the  figurative  sense,  additional. 

Fewer,  less.  Fewer  is  used  of  numbers  ("not  so  many"),  less  of  quan- 
tities ("not  so  much").  Correct:  "Fewer  workmen  were  employed,  for 
there  was  less  work  to  do."  Incorrect:  "We  have  less  students  than 
we  had  last  year." 

Good,  well.  Good  is  an  adjective;  well  may  be  either  a  predicate 
adjective  or  an  adverb.     From  this  correct  double  use  of  ivell  arises,  by  a 


370  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

mistaken  analogy,  an  incorrect  and  illiterate  adverbial  use  of  good.     Illit- 
erate: "It  runs  just  as  good  as  it  did  before."     (See  Looks.) 

Got.  Superfluous  in  such  collociuial  expressions  as  "I've  got  the  money 
in  my  pocket."  Better:  "I  have  the  money  in  my  pocket."  Coi  is  correct 
in  all  cases  in  which  the  meaning  oi  acquiredis  present;  e.g.:  "We've  got 
enough  money  already  from  these  orders  to  pay  for  the  trip."  "I've  got  to" 
instead  of  "I  have  to"  or  "I  must"  is  a  well  established  colloquialism,  though 
grammatically  objectionable.  When  pronounced  /  gotta,  it  becomes  hope- 
lessly vulgar. 

Gotten.  This  longer  form  of  the  participle  is  not  to  be  preferred  to  got. 
A  mistaken  impression  exists  in  many  minds  that  the  word  got  itself  is  in- 
elegant, arising  doubtless  from  such  superfluous  uses  of  it  as  are  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Ground.  Use  "on  the  ground  that" —  not  grounds,  unless  several  dis- 
tinct points  are  named. 

Had  of,  had  have,  had  'a'.    Illiterate  blunders  for  had. 

Had  ought.  An  illiterate  expression,  usually  concealed  by  the  con- 
traction of  had  to  a  mere  'd:  "  He'd  ought  to  have  known  better." 

Hardly.  Inasmuch  as  hardly  conveys  a  negative  idea, it  is  never  to  be 
used  with  tiot.     Incorrect:  "It  wasn't  hardly  fair  to  him"  (double negative). 

Help  but.  Help,  when  it  means  avoid,  should  be  followed  by  a  substan- 
tive as  its  direct  object.  Correct:  "I  could  not  help  feeling  that  he  was 
right."  No  but  is  required.  The  expression  "could  not  help  but  feel", 
though  found  in  some  of  the  older  writers,  is  not  desirable,  on  the  ground  that 
the  but  is  superfluous  and  illogical,  having  been  carried  over  from  the  dif- 
ferent expression,  "I  could  not  but  feel." 

Honor  bound.     See  In  honor  bound. 

However.  Usually  however  does  not  stand  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence 
or  of  a  clause,  but  in  a  parenthetic  position,  between  two  commas.  Correct: 
"If,  however,  you  prefer  the  larger  size,  we  can  accommodate  you." 

I  don't  think.  This  expression,  condemned  by  some  purists,  is  proper 
in  colloquial  English  when  followed  by  so  or  by  an  object  clause.  Correct: 
"I  don't  think  he  is  likely  to  succeed."  Those  who  object  to  this  use  of 
think  are  apparently  unaware  that  the  word  means  not  only  reflect,  meditate, 
but  also  believe.  Naturally,  one  does  not  write  "I  don't  think"  in  formal  com- 
position; the  equivalent  is:  "In  my  opinion  he  is  not  likely  to  succeed." 

In  back  of.  Though  formed  on  the  analogy  of  in  front  of,  this  expres- 
sion is,  nevertheless,  regarded  as  provincial  and  illiterate.  Use  behind  or 
at  the  back  of. 

Incident,  incidence.  An  incident  (plural  incidents)  is  an  event,  an 
occurrence.    Incidence  (preceded  by  the,  not  by  aw,  and  not  used  in  the  plural) 


GLOSSARY  371 

is  a  technical  term  used  in  economics  ("the  incidence  of  taxation"),  and  in 
physics  ("the  angle  of  incidence").     See  dictionary. 

In  honor  bound.    Never  omit  the  in. 

In  regard  to.  Do  not  insert  an  s  after  rfgar</.  The  phrase  is  a  compound 
preposition,  equivalent  to  about,  concerning.  An  entirely  distinct  expression, 
not  to  be  confused  with  in  regard  to,  is  the  elliptical  clause  as  regards.  Cor- 
rect: "He  has  nothing  to  say  as  regards  the  appointment."  Here  regards 
is  a  transitive  verb,  having  appointment  as  its  direct  object. 

Inside,  outside.  No  of  is  necessary  after  the  prepositions  inside  and 
outside.     Correct:  "inside  the  house,"  "outside  the  barn." 

Its.  The  possessive  case  of  pronouns  takes  no  apostrophe.  His,  hers, 
its,  ours,  yours,  theirs.  Observe  that  the  form  iVs  is  incorrect  as  a  pronoun, 
correct  as  a  colloquial  contraction  of  //  is. 

Kind  of,  sort  of.  (i)  No  article  should  follow  these  phrases.  Correct: 
"a  queer  kind  of  day,"  "a  strange  sort  of  man."  The  reason  why  an  indefi- 
nite article  is  incorrect  here  is  that  the  nouns,  day,  man,  are  generic,  not 
particular. 

(2)  The  common  adverbial  use  of  kind  of,  sort  of,  in  the  sense  of  rather, 
almost,  somewhat,  is  illiterate.  Incorrect:  "I  kind  of  thought  we  were  likely 
to  have  trouble."     "It  got  sort  of  twisted." 

Latter.     See  Former. 

Less.     See  Fewer. 

Liable,  likely.  Liable  suggests  unpleasant  consequences;  likely  is  neutral. 
Correct:  "He  is  liable  to  fail."  "You  are  liable  to  have  an  accident."  Use 
likely  except  when  some  element  of  apprehension  is  impUed. 

Like,  as.  Like  is  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  never  a  conjunction.  Correct : 
"He  looks  like  his  father"  (adjective).  "He  acts  like  a  child"  (adverb). 
Some  grammarians,  in  order  to  explain  the  construction  of  father,  child, 
without  resorting  to  the  expedient  of  supi)lying  to  after  like,  call  like  a  prep- 
osition when  used  in  such  comparisons.  Either  interpretation  is  reasonable. 
But  note  that  in  all  such  provincial  or  dialectical  expressions  as,  "He  acts  like 
he  had  lost  something,"  the  word  is  incorrectly  used  in  place  of  the  con- 
junctive phrase  as  if,  and  introduces  an  adverbial  clause.  This  conjunctive 
use  of  like,  though  common  among  educated  persons  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States,  is  contrary  to  established  literary  usage. 

Listen.  An  intolerable  imperative  preface  to  conversation.  Speakers 
who  frequently  begin  their  remarks  with  "Listen"  stamp  themselves  as  ill- 
bred.     It  is  just  as  inane  a  way  of  beginning  a  sentence  as  "Say." 

Loan,  lend.  The  use  of  loan  as  a  verb  is  properly  confined  to  large 
commercial  transactions,  and  even  in  such  cases  is  condemned  by  most 
English  and  some  American  authorities.     The  verb  is  lend.     Correct:  "He 


372  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

asked    me  to    lend    him    a    pencil."     "I    asked    for    the    loan    of    his 
textbook." 

Looks  well,  looks  bad.  After  looks,  as  after  other  verbs  of  sensation, 
a  predicate  adjective  is  required,  not  an  adverb.  Well  in  this  case  is  a 
predicate  adjective,  mes.m.r\g  satisfactory,  pleasing;  bad  is  a  predicate  adjective 
with  the  opposite  meaning.  If /cx;/;^  iati  sounds  incorrect,  test  the  syntax  by- 
substituting  another  adjective.  "It  looks,  crooked"  (not  "crookedly").  "It 
looks  incomplete"  (not  "incompletely").  Observe  that  the  slang  expression 
looks  good  is  not  grammaticaUy  incorrect.  One  might  say  of  a  horse,  "He 
looks  good,"  meaning  "lie  looks  sound,  strong;"  or  of  a  plan,  "It  looks  good 
on  paper,"  meaning  "It  looks  like  a  good  plan."  But  the  expression  has 
been  so  excessively  and  indiscriminately  used  that  synonyms  or  paraphrases 
are  to  be  preferred.     (See  Good.) 

More  so.  A  crude  substitute  for  the  repetition,  in  the  comparative  de- 
gree, of  a  preceding  adjective.  Incorrect:  "During  the  war  these  propa- 
gandists were  bold  enough,  but  now  they  are  still  more  so."  Substitute  still 
bolder. 

Most.  Most  is  the  superlative  of  much;  it  means  "in  the  highest  degree." 
As  a  juvenile  or  dialectical  contraction  of  almost  this  word  has  come  to  be 
widely  used,  not  only  in  colloquial  English  but  in  written  composition  as 
well,  in  such  sentences  as:  "We  read  most  as  far  to-day  as  we  did  yesterday." 
That  is,  properly  speaking,  "We  read  in  the  highest  degree  as  far."  Use 
almost  or  nearly. 

Never.  Never,  like  only,  should  be  placed  immediately  before  or  after 
the  verb  which  it  actually  modifies;  not  illogically  connected  with  some  other 
verb  in  the  sentence.  Incorrect:  "When  he  left  New  York,  he  never  expected 
to  return."  Correct:  "When  he  left  New  York,  he  expected  never  to 
return." 

No  doubt  that.  After  no  doubt  the  correct  construction  is  a  noun  clause, 
introduced  by  ih<it,  in  apposition  with  doubt.  Correct:  "There  is  no  doubt 
thai  he  was  present  at  the  meeting."  Avoid  using  but,  but  that,  or  but  what 
after  doubt.     (See  Bnt) 

Not  .  .  .  any,  no.  Use  the  adjective  no  instead  of  not  followed  by  any. 
Crude:  "They  didn't  have  any  money  with  them."  Better:  "They  had 
no  money  with  them." 

Not  so,  not  as.  After  a  negative,  so  is  ])refcrrcd  to  as.  Correct:  "He  is 
as  well  as  he  was  yesterday,  but  not  so  well  as  he  was  a  week  ago." 

Nowheres.     See  Anyu<hercs. 

O,  oh.  0  is  confined  to  direct  address,  and  is  not  much  used  except  in 
formal,  oratorical,  or  poetical  style.  The  spelling  in  ordinary  writing  is  oh, 
not  capitalized  except  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence. 


GLOSSARY  373 

Off.  Off  is  a  preposition  in  such  phrases  as  off  the  road,  off  the  car,  and 
should  never  be  followed  by  of. 

Oftentimes.  This  word,  based  on  the  analogy  of  sometimes,  and  recog- 
nized in  the  dictionaries  as  in  good  usage,  is  nevertheless  not  to  be  preferred 
to  often,  which  is  half  as  long  and  means  the  same  thing.  Oftentimes  seems 
almost  to  have  superseded  often  in  the  vocabulary  of  many  young  writers 
and  speakers,  who  wrongly  suppose  it  to  be  more  elegant.  Ofttimes  is 
archaic  or  rare. 

One  of  the.  In  nearly  all  sentences  containing  one  of  the  .  .  .  that, 
followed  by  a  restrictive  clause,  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  that  is  not 
one  but  the  plural  noun  immediately  preceding  that;  therefore  the  verb  of 
the  restrictive  clause  should  be  plural.  Correct:  "This  was  one  of  the 
clauses  that  2vcre  added  by  amendment."  "It  was  one  of  the  largest 
audiences  that  have  ever  been  seen  in  this  city." 

Only.  Otily  should  be  placed  immediately  before  or  after  the  word  or 
phrase  which  it  modifies.  Incorrect:  "They  only  paid  six  thousand  for 
the  house."  "The  speaker  only  made  one  reference  to  the  matter  during 
his  whole  address." 

Outside.     See  Inside. 

Participle,  reference  of.  In  a  participial  or  a  gerund  phrase  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence  the  participle  or  the  gerund  should  refer  to  the 
subject  of  the  sentence,  not  to  some  other  substantive  in  the  sentence,  (nor 
to  any  unexpressed  substantive  —  see  Dangling  participles).  Incorrect: 
"Waiting  at  the  station  for  my  train,  a  man  approached  me."  "Having 
resigned  in  February,  the  governor  appointed  him  to  another  position 
early  in  March."  "After  giving  the  fellow  my  last  dollar,  a  policeman  told 
me  he  was  a  professional  beggar." 

Passive  constructions.  English  idiom  prefers  the  active  voice.  Many 
awkward  expressions  and  some  glaring  errors  arise  from  the  unnecessary  use 
of  passive  verbs.  Whenever  grammatical  puzzles  appear  in  a  sentence 
containing  a  passive  verb,  the  easiest  solution  is  to  change  to  the  active 
voice.  For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "He  was  given  a  purse  of  gold,"  tlie 
pronoun,  which  would  be  the  indirect  object  in  the  active  form,  becomes 
the  subject  in  the  passive,and  the  direct  object,  purse,is "retained."  Some 
grammarians  condemn  all  such  sentences  as  incorrect;  others  regard  them 
as  idiomatic,  though  hard  to  parse.  Careful  writers  avoid  a  frequent  use 
of  this  construction.  The  best  correction  is  not  "A  purse  of  gold  was  given 
to  him,"  but  rather  "He  received  a  purse  of  gold,"  or  "Some  of  his  friends 
gave  him  a  purse  of  gold." 

People.  People,  used  as  a  sort  of  indefinite  plural  for  person,  is  proper 
when  a  considerable  or  unknown  number  is  involved,  but  not  when  the 


374  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

number  is  known  to  be  small.  Correct:  "There  were  a  good  many  people 
in  the  hall  an  hour  before  the  meeting."  Incorrect:  "Only  two  or  three 
people  asked  questions  of  the  speaker."     Use  persons. 

Per.  To  be  used  only  with  another  Latin  word:  per  annum,  per  centum, 
per  diem.     Avoid  per  day,  per  week,  per  year.     Use  a.     (See  As  per) 

Plan.  As  an  intransitive  verb,  plan  should  be  followed  by  for  and  a 
substantive,  or  by  to  and  an  infinitive;  not  by  on.  Correct:  "We  are  plan- 
ning/or a  reunion."  "We  are  planning /<7 /!az»c  a  reunion."  Incorrect:  "We 
are  planning  on  a  reunion."  Often  it  is  best  to  use  the  verb  transitively:  "We 
are  planning  a  reunion." 

Plenty,  Plenty  is  a  noun,  to  be  followed  by 0/  when  another  noun  follows. 
Correct:  "plenty  of  money,"  "plenty  of  time."  It  is  never  to  be  used  with- 
out of,  as  if  it  were  an  adjective.  The  corresponding  adjectives  are  plentiful, 
ample,  abundant. 

Possessive  before  gerund.  Before  a  verbal  noun  in  -itig,  commonly 
caUed  a  gerund,  a  pronoun  must  always  be  in  the  possessive  case,  not  in 
the  objective.  Correct:  "There  was  no  possibility  of  his  failing  to  see  it." 
Logically  a  noun,  likewise,  should  always  take  the  possessive  form  before 
a  gerund.  Actual  usage  varies;  short  nouns  usually  take  the  possessive, 
whereas  longer  words,  expecially  long  proper  names  and  noun  phrases, 
frequently  omit  the  '5. 

Possessive  of  inanimate  objects.  In  a  few  idiomatic  phrases  only,  such 
as  "a  day's  work,"  "a  year's  time,"  is  the  jjossessive  case  properly  used  of 
inanimate  objects.  Such  phrases  as  "the  road's  surface,"  "the  roof's  dura- 
bility," are  not  in  good  usage.     Use  of. 

Possessive  of  proper  nouns  in-s     See  Dickens's. 

Prefer.  When  prefer  is  followed  by  two  nouns  or  gerunds  set  ofl  against 
each  other,  the  proper  connective  between  the  words  is  to,  not  t)mn.  Correct: 
"Most  students  prefer  paddling  to  rowing."  "The  guides  preferred  tea  to 
cofifee."  When  the  preference  is  expressed  by  the  use  of  two  infinitives,  the 
proper  connective  is  rather  than,  not  tlmn  alone.  Correct:  "Most  students 
prefer  to  paddle  rather  than  to  row." 

Previous,  previously.  Previous  is  alwaj's  an  adjective,  not  an  adverb. 
Correct:  "The  treaty  was  previous  to  the  alliance."  But,  "The  treaty  was 
signed  previously  to  (or  before)  the  alliance."  Correct:  "The  day  previaus 
to  our  departure  was  a  busy  one."  But,  "Before  our  departure  we  were 
very  busy"  (not  previous  to).  Previous  should  not  be  used  unless  there  is 
a  noun  in  the  sentence  for  it  to  modify. 

F*roposition .  The  slang  use  of  proposition  as  meaning  an  undertaking, 
an  affair,  is  unsuitable  in  written  English.  See  the  dictionary  for  the 
correct  meaning  of  the  word. 


GLOSSARY  375 

Proven.  An  irregular  and  anomalous  substitute  for  ^rwetf;  rather  widely- 
used,  but  not  to  be  recommended.  Normally  the  only  verbs  which  have 
participles  in  -en  are  the  so-called  strong  verbs  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  {given, 
driven).  Prove  is  from  the  French.  Many  speakers  and  writers  seem  to 
have  a  mistaken  impression  that  proven  is  more  elegant  than  the  regular 
form  proved. 

Quite  a  few.  A  rather  absurd  colloquialism  for  "a  considerable  number," 
"a  good  many."  Its  absurdity  arises  from  the  fact  that  whether  quite  is 
taken  in  its  literary  sense  of  "entirely"  or  in  its  colloquial  sense  of  "rather," 
the  phrase  as  a  whole  seems  to  convey  the  opposite  of  the  meaning  intended: 
seeming  to  mean  "altogether  few"  or  "rather  few,"  whereas  the  actual  sense 
is  "more  than  might  be  expected." 

Reason  is  that.  In  the  predicate  of  a  sentence  beginning  "The  reason  is," 
we  must  have  a  noun  clause  introduced  by  that,  not  an  adverbial  clause 
introduced  by  because.  Correct:  "The  reason  why  he  failed  is  that  he  lacked 
sufficient  capital."     But,  "He  failed  because  he  lacked  sufficient  capital." 

Regard.    See  In  regard  to. 

Remember.     Followed  by  the  direct  object,  not  by  of. 

Reverend.  This  title,  like  Honorable,  is  an  adjective,  not  a  noun;  there- 
fore it  must  be  followed,  not  merely  by  the  surname,  but  by  the  given  name 
or  initials  also,  or,  in  lieu  of  them,  at  least  by  the  noun  Mr.  Illiterate: 
"Reverend  Smith  was  present."  Correct:  "Reverend  (or,  the  Reverend) 
A.J.  Smith,"  or  "Reverend  Mr.  Smith." 

Rotmd,  aroimd.  The  two  words  are  used  interchangeably,  though  there 
is  a  tendency  to  prefer  the  shorter  form,  especially  as  an  adverb.  Notice 
that  rmind  is  not  preceded  by  an  apostrophe. 

Seldom  if  ever.  Like  all  vacillating  constructions,  seldom  if  ever  tends 
to  cause  grammatical  confusion.  The  omission  of  the  if  makes  nonsense 
out  of  the  sentence.  Better  write  simply  seldom;  or  seldom  or  never.  In 
seldom  or  never  we  have  two  adverbs  in  coordinate  parallel  relation,  whereas 
in  seldom  if  ever  an  adverb  is  connected  with  an  elliptical  conditional  clause, 
of  which  both  the  subject  and  the  verb  must  be  supplied. 

So.  (i)  The  adverb  so,  colloquially  used  as  a  conjunction  to  indicate 
a  conclusion  or  a  consequence,  should  never  be  so  used  alone  in  formal 
writing.  Use  and  so,  or  so  that;  or  change  the  compound  sentence  into  a 
simple  or  a  complex  sentence,  placing  the  cause  in  a  participial  or  prep- 
ositional phrase,  or  in  a  subordinate  clause.  When,  however,  in  colloquial 
written  Enghsh,  for  example  in  informal  letters,  so  is  used  alone  as  a  con- 
junction, it  must  always  be  preceded  by  a  mark  of  punctuation,  preferably 
a  semicolon. 

(2)     So  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  very,  even  in  colloquial  English. 


376  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 

Incorrect:  "Books  are  so  expensive  now."  Substitute  very,  or  add  a  clause 
of  result  beginning  with  I  hat.  Correct:  "Books  are  so  expensive  now  Unit 
I  can't  afford  to  buy  them  except  to  give  away." 

Some,  any.  Not  to  be  used  as  adverbs.  Illiterate:  "I  studied  Latin 
sonte  in  high  school."  "We  didn't  hurt  it  any."  In  adverbial  relations 
use  somewhat  instead  of  some,  at  all  instead  of  any. 

Somebody  else's.  The  two  words  form  a  phrase  with  a  single  idea,  really 
a  sort  of  compound  pronoun;  hence  the  sign  of  the  possessive  should  follow 
else.  Compare  "The  Duke  of  Westminster's  estate,"  "the  King  of  Spain's 
daughter." 

Some  place.     See  Any  place. 

Somewheres.     See  Anywheres. 

Split  infinitive.  No  adverb  should  separate  to  from  the  infinitive,  unless 
clearness  requires  that  arrangement.  Usually  the  qualifying  adverb 
should  precede  to  or  follow  the  infinitive.  Undesirable  and  unnecessary: 
"The  next  step  is  to  carefully  remove  all  traces  of  acid." 

Subsequent,  subsequently.  See  previous,  previously.  The  same  prin- 
ciple holds;  and  in  adverbial  [jhrases  the  adverb  should  be  used,  or  the  pre- 
position after. 

Substitute.  As  a  transitive  verb  substitute  means  "to  put  in  the  place  of 
another  person  or  thing."  The  passive  participle  substituted  is  therefore 
followed  by /or.  Correct:  "A  was  substituted /or  B"  (that  is,  B  was  taken 
out  and  A  was  put  in  his  place).  When  B  is  made  the  subject  of  the  sentence, 
we  must  say  "B  was  replaced  by  A"  (not  substituted  by). 

Take,  (i)  Take  is  a  provincialism  when  used  independently  for 
"take  lessons."     Incorrect:  "I  took  from  him  last  winter." 

(2)  Crudely  used  in  the  imperative  mood  to  introduce  an  example  or 
illustration.  Incorrect:  "Take  last  Saturday's  game;  all  the  scoring  was 
done  during  the  last  five  minutes  of  play."  Better:  "In  last  Saturday's 
game,  for  example  ..." 

Than.  Titan  is  always  a  conjunction,  except  in  the  unique  expression 
than  whom,  in  which  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  preposition.  Being  a  con- 
junction, it  does  not  determine  the  construction  of  a  following  substantive, 
which  may  be  nominative  or  objective  according  to  the  syntax  of  the  pre- 
ceding clause.  Correct:  "He  worked  harder  than  we."  "It  affects  them 
more  than  us." 

Then  too.  A  tame  and  juvenile  connective  between  sentences  or  between 
paragraphs.  Prefer  such  equivalents  as  moreover,  attain,  further,  and  adverb- 
ial phrases  of  similar  meaning.     See  Too. 

There  being.  .Absolute  phrases  introduced  by  there  being  are  often 
awkward.     Usually  the  subject  of  the  participle  should  come  first,  in  place 


GLOSSARY  377 

of  there.  Awkward:  "The  actors  had  to  play  in  street  costume,  there  being 
too  little  time  for  a  change  of  clothes."  Better:  "too  Uttle  time  being  avail- 
able." A  change  of  the  sentence  to  the  compound  form  ("for  there  was  too 
little  time"),  or  to  the  complex  form  ("because  there  was  too  little  time")  is 
often  preferable. 

There  is,  it  is.  Sentences  beginning  there  is,  there  are,  or  it  is,  are  fre- 
quently wordy  and  weak.  Try  the  experiment  of  omittmg  these  expressions 
in  order  to  gain  brevity  and  force.  Their  legitimate  use  is  to  throw  the 
emphasis  toward  the  end  of  the  sentence,  in  such  cases  as  the  following: 
"There  is  many  a  slip  'twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip."  "There  is  a  sense  in 
which  this  book  is  dangerous."     "It  is  a  long  lane  that  has  no  turning." 

Till.  Till  means  the  same  as  until,  but  is  not  a  contraction  of  it;  hence 
no  apostrophe  should  be  placed  before  it.  Notice  that  ////  has  two  /'s,  until 
only  one. 

Too.  Too  never  begins  a  sentence  or  a  clause  when  it  has  the  meaning 
moreover,  besides.  It  is  placed  parenthetically,  between  two  commas,  after 
the  first  word  or  phrase,  or  sometimes  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  "For  this 
reason,  too,  we  must  delay  action."  "They  made  good  laws,  and  they 
enforced  them,  too."  This  use  of  too  is  chiefly  colloquial;  also,  moreover,  are 
more  common  in  formal  English.     (See  Then  too.) 

Treats  of.  After  treats  use  of,  not  on,  when  the  meaning  is  concerns, 
deals  with.  Correct:  "The  paragraph  treats  of  the  several  kinds  of  corpora- 
tions." For  other  uses  of  treat  see  the  dictionary.  Notice  these  three  partly 
parallel  phrases,  each  with  a  different  preposition:  treats  of,  deals  with, 
touches  on. 

Try.     Followed  by  to  with  the  infinitive,  not  by  and. 

United  States,  The.  The  delinite  article  must  always  precede  the 
name  of  the  United  States  when  used  as  a  noun.  Incorrect:  "France  and 
United  States  have  long  been  friends."  The  article  may  be  omitted  only 
when  the  name  of  the  country  is  used  as  an  adjective.  Correct:  "United 
States  soldiery  entered  Mexico  in  the  attempt  to  capture  Villa." 

Up  until. .  Omit  the  up. 

Very,  (i)  Very  is  superfluous  in  at  least  three  cases  out  of  four.  Try 
the  experiment  of  cancelling  it  wherever  it  occurs  in  written  English.  It  is 
seldom  indispensable  except  after  not,  and  frequently  adds  no  force  whatever 
to  the  sentence. 

(2)  Very  is  not  ordinarily  used  alone  to  qualify  past  participles.  "I 
should  be  much  pleased  (or  very  much  pleased,  not  very  pleased)  to  accom- 
pany you."  "They  seemed  much  interested"  (or  very  much  interested,  not 
very  interested). 

Way.     As  an  adverb,  way  is  a  childish  or  dialectical  contraction  of  away. 


378  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

It  should  never  be  used  in  such  expressions  as  "He  was  way  ahead  of  the 
rest  of  the  party,"  "We  saw  him  way  up  on  the  top  of  the  hill."  Write  "far 
ahead;"  "on  the  very  top." 

Whereabouts.  As  a  noun,  whereabouts  is  singular.  Correct:  "His 
present  whereabouts  is  unknown." 

While.  While  is  either  an  adverb  of  time, meaning  at  the  same  time  that, 
or  a  subordinating  conjunction  meaning  though  or  whereas.  It  should  not 
be  used  as  if  it  were  a  coordinating  conjunction,  to  join  clauses  equal  in 
importance.  Incorrect:  "John  Smith  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
committee,  while  Bill  Jones  was  made  secretary."  Use  atul.  In  many  cases 
this  incorrect  while  can  be  best  replaced  by  a  period  or  a  semicolon. 

Whom.  This  objective  form  can  never  be  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb, 
but  only  of  an  infinitive.  Incorrect:  "Jones  is  the  man  whom  every  one 
expects  will  be  elected  senator."  The  syntax  of  such  a  sentence  should  be 
clear  to  any  intelligent  person.  Every  one  expects  is  a  parenthetical  clause 
having  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  The  subject  of 
will  be  elected  cannot  be  Jones  or  man,  and  must  therefore  be  the  relative 
pronoun.  Commas  placed  before  and  after  the  parenthetical  clause  make 
the  syntax  clearer;  and  an  as  inserted  before  every  makes  the  clause  an 
adverbial  modifier  of  the  predicate.  This  extremely  common  error  of  making 
whom  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  arises  from  confusion  with  a  different  type 
of  sentence  in  which  the  infinitive  is  used.  Correct:  "Jones  is  the  man 
whom  every  one  expects  to  be  elected."  Here  whom  with  its  accompanying 
infinitive  is  the  object  of  expects. 

Why.  Why  has  properly  two  meanings:  (i)  as  an  interrogative  or 
relative  adverb  introducing  a  direct  or  indirect  question;  (2)  as  a  colloquial 
interjection,  at  the  beginning  of  a  declarative  sentence,  impl>'ing  hesitation, 
deliberation,  or  concession.  Correct:  "Was  he  there  after  four  o'clock? 
Why,  yes,  I  think  he  stayed  till  nearly  five."  The  word  is  often  improperly 
used  in  colloquial  English,  in  the  two  following  cases: 

(i)  Students  during  a  recitation  period  instinctively  or  automatically 
begin  an  answer  to  any  question  with  the  meaningless  interjection  why, 
even  when  no  hesitation  exists.  It  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  preliminary  vocal 
exercise  necessary  before  the  speaker  can  begin  to  say  anything.  A  momen- 
tary pause  for  collecting  one's  thoughts  is  much  to  be  preferred. 

(2)  Why  is  superfluously  and  incorrectly  inserted  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  clause  (ajiodosis)  of  a  conditional  sentence.  Incorrect:  "If  you 
really  want  to  know  the  facts,  why  you  had  better  go  and  sec  for  yourself." 

Yes.  The  most  abused  word  in  the  American  language.  Yeah,  yeh, 
eh-ya,  are  lazy,  slovenly  substitutes  for  yes.  The  yeah  habit  is  a  bad  habit, 
which  stamps  a  speaker  as  too  lazy  to  close  his  mouth. 


GLOSSARY  379 

ADDITIONS   TO  GLOSSARY 


38o  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

WORDS   COMMONLY   MISPRONOUNCED 

accurate  {ak-yu-rale,  not  ak-er-ate) 

across  (no  final  /  sound) 

acts  (sound  the  /) 

address  (stress  second  syllable,  not  first) 

adult  (stress  last  syllable) 

aeroplane  (a-er-o,  not  area) 

allies  (stress  last  syllable) 

Alma  Mater  {Mater  rimes  with  laler) 

amateur  (last  syllable  stressed,  rimes  with  cur,  not  cure) 

American  (e  as  in  errand) 

and  (always  sound  the  d — e.g.,  men  and  women — 'not  '«') 

at  all  (pronounced  as  spelled,  not  a  tall) 

athletic  (no  vowel  after  ath-) 

because  {-cause,  not  cuz) 

been  {bin,  not  ben) 

believe  (sound  e  in  be-) 

biography  (long  /  as  in  biology) 

catch  (not  ketch) 

chauffeur  (stress  last  syllable) 

children  {-dren,  not  -dern) 

clothes  (sound  the  -lit) 

college  {-lege,  not  -lige) 

comfortable  (not  comftable) 

correct  (sound  the  o) 

curriculum  (sound  the  u) 

data  {a  as  in  date) 

defect  (stress  last  syllable  only) 

despicable  (stress  first  syllabic  only) 

dictionary  (stress  first  syllable  only,  not  third) 

different  (three  syllables) 

drama  (first  a  as  in  father) 

due  {u  as  in  music) 

during  {u  as  in  music) 

duty  {u  as  in  music) 

efficient  (first  syllabic  cf-,  not  e) 

England  (pronounce  Ing-gland) 

entire  (stress  last  syllabic  only) 

excess  (stress  last  syllable  only) 

extant  (stress  first  syllabic) 


PRONUNCIATION  381 

facts  (sound  the  /) 

family  (sound  the  i) 

figure  {figyure,  not  Jigger) 

for  (sound  the  o,  lightly  when  unaccented;  never /cr) 

foreign  (two  syllables) 

formidable  (stress  first  syllable) 

generally  (four  syllables) 

gentlemen  (sound  the  /  and  the  last  e) 

get  (get,  not  git) 

going  to  (as  spelled,  not  go?ia) 

got  to  (two  /  sounds  and  an  o;  not  gotta) 

government  (sound  both  tt's) 

gradually  (four  syllables) 

has  to  (pronounce  haz  to,  not  hass  ta) 

have  to  (pronounce  as  spelled,  not  haf  ta) 

history  (three  syllables) 

hospitable  (stress  first  syllable) 

hundred  (not  hiinderd) 

ideal  (three  syllables) 

illustration  (stress  first  and  third  syllables,  not  second) 

instead  (not  instid) 

institution  {u  as  in  music) 

integral  (stress  first  syllable,  not  second) 

interesting  (sound  both  e's) 

introduce  {in-tro-dyuce,  not  interdooce) 

introduction  (intro-  not  inter-) 

irrelevant  (ir-rcl-,  not  ir-rev) 

kept  (sound  the  /) 

lamentable  (stress  first  syllable) 

literature  (lit-er-a-tynre  or  -chure,  not  litracher  or  -toor) 

naturally  {nat-yn-ral-ly ,  or  nach-yn-ral-ly,  not  nacherly) 

new  (rimes  with/ew) 

news  (rimes  with/w^e) 

New  York  (as  spelled,  not  N'   Yawk) 

obligatory  (stress  first  syllable) 

of  (pronounced  ov,  not  iiv  or  of) 

often  (/  is  silent) 

opportunity  («  as  in  nmsic) 

or  (sound  the  o;  not  er;  sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  not  sinker  swtm,liver  die) 

particular  (as  spelled,  not  p'tic'ler) 

p)oem  (sound  the  e;  not  po-nm) 


382  FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 

police  (sound  the  0) 

political  (sound  the  0) 

practically  (four  syllables) 

pretty  (pronounce  prilly,  not  P'rty) 

precedence  (stress  second  syllable) 

principal  (three  syllables) 

probably  (not  prob'ly) 

program  {a  as  in  tdcgram;  not  progruni) 

realize  (sound  the  a) 

really  (sound  the  a) 

recognize  (sound  the  g) 

regular  (sound  the  u) 

roof  {00  as  in  moon) 

room  {00  as  in  moon) 

school  (rimes  with  tool;  not  schoo-ul) 

status  {a  as  in  state) 

student  (styu-dcnt,  not  stoo-d'nt) 

subjects  (not  stibjix) 

suitable  (syoot-able,  not  soot-) 

suppose  (not  s'pose) 

supposing  (not  s'pos'n) 

to  (before  vowels,  long  00,  before  consonants,  short  00;  not  ta) 

tremendous  {-dus,  not  -jus) 

tube  (ti  as  in  music) 

Tuesday  («  as  in  music) 

United  States  (sound  the  U) 

university  (sound  the  i's;  not  unaversaty) 

used  to  (pronounce  uzed  to,  not  yoosta) 

usually  (sound  the  second  «) 

valuable  (sound  the  second  a) 

very  (e  as  in  ferry;  not  vurry) 

victory  (sound  the  0) 

was  (pronounce  woz,  not  ivuz) 

what  {hwot,  not  wot) 

where  {hware,  not  ware) 

whether  {hwether,  not  wether) 

while  {hwile,  not  wile) 

white  (hwite,  not  wite) 

with  {th  as  in  this,  not  in  thin) 

yes  (sound  the  s;  not  yeh  or  yeah) 

your  (yoor,  00  as  in  took;  not  yer) 


PRONUNCIATION  383 


OTHER   WORDS  COMMONLY  MISPRONOUNCED 


384 


FRESHMAN  RHETORIC 


SPELLING   RULES 

The  following  rules  for  spelling  cover  many  cases  in  which  errors  are 
likely  to  arise: 

(i)  Words  of  one  syllable  endmg  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a 
short  vowel  commonly  double  the  consonant  before  a  sufiLx  beginning  with 
a  vowel  {rub,  rubber;  plan,  planning;  hop,  hopping). 

(2)  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  a  single  consonant  pre- 
ceded by  a  short  vowel  commonly  double  the  final  consonant  before  a  sufifix 
beginning  with  a  vowel  when  the  accent  is  on  the  last  syllable,  but  not 
otherwise  {refer,  referred,  but  offer,  offered;  remit,  remitted,  but  benefit, 
benefited) . 

(3)  Words  ending  in  silent  e  usually  drop  the  e  before  a  suiEx  beginning 
with  a  vowel,  but  never  double  the  preceding  consonant  {plane,  planing; 
hope,  hoping;  dine,  dining;  write,  writing).  The  silent  e  is  retained  after  c 
or  g  when  necessary  to  indicate  the  soft  sound  of  the  consonant  {noticeable, 
serviceable,  manageable). 


WORDS   COMMONLY   MISSPELLED 


I 

accidentally 

12 

believe 

2 

accommodate 

14 
15 

relieve 
conceive 

3 

afiFect(verb,to 

modify)         '\ 

16 

deceive 

4 

effect(verb,  to 

bring  about)  > 

17 

receive 

(noun,  a  result)                ) 

18 

benefit 

5 

all  right 

19 

coming 

6 

always 

20 
21 

comparative 
definition 

7 

angel   1 

22 

deity 

8 

angle  J 

23 

24 

description 
dining 

9 

argument 

25 

disiippear 

ID 

athletic 

26 

disappoint 

II 

balance 

27 

eighth 

12 

beginning 

28 

embarras 

s 

SPELLING 


385 


29  existence 

30  fascinating 

31  finally 

32  formally     (in     a     formal  | 

manner)  f 

33  formerly  (in  former  times)  J 

34  forty 

35  gauge 

36  grammar 

37  Great  Britain 

38  grievous 

39  guard 

40  harass 

41  humorous 

42  incidentally 

43  independent 

44  judgment 

45  known 

46  laboratory 

47  lead  (verb,  to  conduct)        1 

48  lead  (noun,  a.  metal)  ^ 

49  led  (past  tense  of  lead)         J 

50  loose  (not  tight)  ] 

51  lose  (to  be  deprived  of,  to  > 

miss)  J 

52  Macaulay  (the  historian) 

53  magazin3 

54  miscellaneous 

55  mysterious 

56  ninety 

57  occasion 

58  occasionally 

59  cccurred 

60  original 

61  oerform 

62  planing 

63  planning 

64  precede 

65  proceed 


66  preparation 

67  principal   (adjective,   lead-^ 

ing;  noun,  head  of  school) 

68  principle      (noun,     funda- 1 

mental  law)  J 

69  privilege 

70  professor 

71  prove 

72  psychology 

73  quiet  (calm) 

74  quite  (entirely) 

75  recognize 

76  recommendation 

77  referred 

78  religious 

79  repetition 

80  rhetoric 

81  safety 

82  separate 

83  Shelley  (the  poet) 

84  similar 

85  sophomore 

86  stretch 

87  studying 

88  supersede 

89  surprise 

90  technical 

91  Thackeray  (the  novelist) 

92  their  (possessive) 

93  there  (adverb) 

94  to  (preposition) 

95  too  (adverb) 

96  tragedy 

97  truly 

98  till 

99  until 
100  writing 


386  FRESHMAN   RHETORIC 


OTHER   WORDS    SOMETIMES   MISSPELLED 
BY   THE   OWNER   OF    THIS    BOOK 


INDEX 


The  references  are  to  pages. 


Abbreviation,  13;  in  business  letters, 
175;  in  formal  social  notes,  187. 

Address,  in  business  letters,  175;  in 
formal  social  notes,  185-186. 

After-dinner  speeches,  170-171. 

Agreement,  grammatical,  errors  in, 
197-199. 

Agreement,  points  of,  in  argumenta- 
tion, 218-220. 

A.  L.  A.  Book  Lisl,  133. 

A.  L.  A.  Catalogue,  133. 

All  during,  365. 

All  right,  201,  365. 

Along  this  line,  365. 

Alterations  in  manuscript,  13-14. 

Analogy,  argument  from,  248-249. 

Analysis, in  exposition, 21-33, 68-78; 
in  argumentation,  208-224;  proof 
arising  from,  237-240. 

And,  e.Kcessive  use  of,  46-47,  200; 
comma  before,  in  series,  51. 

And  uhich,  365. 

Anniversary  speeches,  172-173. 

Antecedents,  365. 

Antonyms,  284. 

Anxious,  365. 

Any,  with  not,  376. 

Any  place,  366. 

Anywheres,  2,(3^. 


Appositive  phrase,  punctuation  of, 

50- 
Argumentation,  205-250;  not  to  be 

confused   with  exposition,  66-67. 
Arrangement  of  outline,  28. 
Article,  repeated  in  series,  366. 
As,  after  dont  know,  199,  366;  for 

sitch  as,  366;  causal  use,  366. 
As  much  if  not  more,  366. 
As  per,  366. 
As  though,  366. 
As  lOell  as,  366. 

Athletics,  reporting  of,  355-356- 
Atlases,  119. 

Authority,  argument  from,  231-232. 
Autobiography,  7-9. 
Auxiliaries,  189-194. 
Awfully,  367. 

Balanced  sentences,  103-104. 

Beside,  besides,  367. 

Between,  367. 

Bibliography,    form    for,    129-130; 

of  periodical  references,  139-140. 
Biographical  dictionaries,  I16-117. 
Biography,    theme    subjects    from, 

343-346. 
Book  List,  The  A.  L.  A.,  133. 
Book  Review  Digest,  133-134. 


387 


388 


INDEX 


Book-reviews,  291-299. 
Book  titles,  11. 
Books,  selection  of,  130-134. 
Brief,  form  of,  245-247. 
Burden  of  proof,  225-227. 
Business  letters,  175-182. 
But,  a.iteT  doubt,  199,367;  as  prep- 
osition, 367. 

Can't  seem,  367. 

Capitalization  12-13. 

Cards,  for  outlines  for  oral  exposi- 
tion, 34-37;  for  bibliography, 
129-130,  139-140;  for  library 
notes,  141-144. 

Catalogue,  card,  120-125. 

Classification,  library,  125-128. 

Clause,  distinguished  from  sentence, 
42-44;  dependent,  44,  48-50; 
descriptive  and  restrictive,  punc- 
tuation of,  50;  complex,  54-55; 
compound,  55-57- 

Coherence,  in  outline,  32;  in  sen- 
tence, 61-62 ;  in  paragraph,  94-96; 
in  business  letters,  177;  in  nana- 
tion,  332;  in  news  writing,353-354. 

College  journalism,  347-359- 

College  spirit,  analysis  of,  68-79. 

Colloquial  English,  189-204. 

Color,  in  description,  308-309. 

Comma,  wrong  use  of  in  compound 
sentence,  45;  before  descriptive 
clause,  50;  wrongly  used  before 
restrictive  clause,  50;  with  apposi- 
tive  phrase,  50;  with  parenthetical 
expression,  51 ;  separating  last 
members  of  series  before  and,  51 ; 
with  participial  phrase,  51 ;  un- 
necessary commas,  51 ;  incorrect 
commas,  52. 


Commonplace,  elimination  of,  20,  76. 

Complex  sentence,  48-50;  punctua- 
tion of,  50;  with  compound 
clauses,  55-57;  in  colloquial  Eng- 
lish, 194-197. 

Compound  sentence,  43;  distin- 
guished from  simple  sentence,  45; 
unity  of,  45;  clauses  coordinate 
in  meaning,  46-47;  punctuation 
of,  48;  with  .complex  clauses, 
54,  55;  in  colloquial  English, 
194-197. 

Conclusion,  in  exposition,  157-158; 
in  argumentation,  245;  in  news 
writing,  35-2-353- 

Congratulatory  speeches,  172. 

Conjunctions,  errors  in  use  of, 
199-200. 

Connotation  of  words,  279-280;  in 
description,  311-314. 

Contentions,  in  argumentation,  214- 
217. 

Conversation,  202-204. 

Coordinating  conjunctions,  punc- 
tuation before,  48. 

Could  of,  367. 

Criticism,  literary,  291. 

Cutter's  Expansive  Classification, 
126. 

Dangling  gerund,  367. 

Dangling  participle,  367. 

Data,  must   be    followed  by    plural 

verb,  368. 
Dates,  12. 
Deals,  should   be   followed  by  with, 

not  by  on,  368. 
Decimal     Classification,      Dewey's, 

126-127. 
Deductive  reasoning,  236-237. 


INDEX 


389 


Definition,  in  argumentation,  212- 

214;  in  word-study,  275-277. 
Denotation  of  words,  279. 
Dependent  clause,  48-49;  standing 

alone,    44;    three    kinds    of,    49; 

punctuation  of,  50. 
Description,  301-317. 
Descriptive  clause,  punctuation  of, 

50. 
Development  of  outline,  29,  77-78. 
Dewey  Decimal  Classification,  126- 

127. 
Dialogue   in   story-telling,    323;   in 

story-writing,  335-336. 
Diction,  in  colloquial  English,  201. 
Dictionaries,  109-111,  258,  282. 
Different  than,  200,  368. 
Division  of  subject,  26-28,  77-79, 

155-156. 
Doublets,  in  word-study,  284-285. 
Due  to,  60,  368. 

Editorial  writing,  358-359. 

Emphasis,  in  outline,  32;  in  sen- 
tence, 60-61 ;  in  paragraph,  96-99; 
in  words,  285;  in  narration,  332- 
333;   in  news  writing,  352-353. 

Encyclopedias,  111-116. 

English  history,  theme  subjects 
from,  340-342- 

English  language,  relaitions  of,  259- 
261. 

Enormity,  369. 

Enthymeme,       in      argumentation, 

234- 

Errors,  in  colloquial  English,  197- 
201,  365-378;  in  pronunciation, 
380-382;    in  spelling,  384-385. 

Etc.,  369. 

Etymology,  256-274. 


Eulogistic  speeches,  173. 

Every  so  often,  369. 

Evidence,  227-230. 

Expansive   Classification,    Cutter's, 

126. 
Exposition,  1-2;  of  a  simple  subject, 

16-40;  of  principles  and  opinions; 

64-80;    five    principles    of,    79; 

paragraphs  in,   81-99;   sentence, 

in,    100-104;    based   on    reading, 

149-155- 

Fact,  questions  of,  206-208. 

Fallacies,  247-249. 

Farther,  369. 

Feature    stories,    in    news    writing, 

356-357- 
Feel,  followed  by  predicate  adjective, 

not  by  adverb,  369. 
Fewer,  369. 

Fiction  writing,  322-336. 
FinaiKial,  misuse  of,  369. 
For,  in  reasoning,  232. 
Former,  369. 
Funny,  369. 

Gerund,  dangling,  367. 

Gesture,  in  oral  exposition,  38-39. 

Glossary    of   common  errors,  365- 

378- 
Good,  never  an  adverb,  369. 
Got,  194,  370;  gotten,  370. 
Greek  element  in  English,  271-274. 
Grointd,  on  the  ground  that,  370. 

Had  of,  had  have,  370. 
Had  ought,  370. 
Handwriting,  10. 

Hardly,  not  to  be  used  with  negative 
370. 


390 


INDEX 


Head,  in  news  writing,  350. 
Help,  not  to  be  followed  by  but,  370. 
Historical  narration,  338-340. 
However,  position  of,  370. 

/  dont  think,  370. 
//,  omission  of,  48. 
Imagination,    in    description,    302- 
305;  in  historical  writing,  338- 

339- 

In  back  of,  200,  370. 

Indo-European  roots,  266-267. 

Inductive  reasoning,  236-237. 

Infinitive,  not  to  be  split  unneces- 
sarily, 376. 

In  honor  bound,  371. 

In  regard  to,  371. 

Inside,  no  of  necessary  after,  371. 

Interest,  in  exposition,  19-20,  40, 
149-150;  in  argumentation,  237- 
240;  style  as  a  means  of  promot- 
ing, 254;  in  book-reviews,  291- 
293;  in  description,  302-307;  in 
short  stories,  325. 

Interpretation  of  literature,  291-299. 

Interviews,  357-358- 

Introduction,  in  exposition,  76-77, 
156-157;  in  argumentative  brief, 

245- 
Inventory,  mental,  21-26,  67-75. 
Invitations,  written,  185-186. 
Irrelevant     points,     in    e.xposition, 

75-76;  in  argumentation,  217-218. 
Issues,  in  argumentation,  221-222. 
Italics,  uses  of,  11. 
Its,  no  apostrophe,  371. 

Journalism,  college,  347-359- 

Kind  of,  adverbial  use  of,  371. 


Languages,  names  of,  capitalized,  13. 

Latin  element  in  English,  267-271. 

Latter,  369. 

Lead,  in  news  writing,  351. 

Legibility,  10. 

Less,  not  to  be  used  iox  fewer,  371. 

Letter- writing,  175-188. 

Liable,  incorrect  use  of,  371. 

Library,  use  of,  108-145;  regulations, 
108-109;  use  of  catalogue,  120- 
125;  classification,  125-129. 

Library  of  Congress,  catalogue 
cards,  123;  classification,  126; 
bibliographies,  135. 

Like,  adverbial  use  of,  371. 

Listen,  improper  use  of,  371, 

Literature,interpretationof, 291-299. 

Loan,  improper  use  of,  371. 

Looks,  followed  by  predicate  adjec- 
tive, 372. 

Loose  sentence,  100. 

Magazines,  see  periodicals. 
Major  premise,  233-234. 
Manuscript,     10. 
Mental  inventory,  21-26,  67-75. 
Minor  premise,  233-234. 
Mispronounced  words,  380-382 
Misspelled  words,  384-385. 
Money,  writing  sums  of,  12. 
More  so,  incorrect  use  of,  372. 
Most,  not  to  be  used  for  almost,  372. 
Motion  in  description,  307-308. 
Motives  for  composition,  19. 

Narration,  fictitious,  322-335;  his- 
torical and  biographical,  338-346; 
news  writing,  347-359. 

Never,  position  of,  372. 

News  writmg,  347-359- 


INDEX 


391 


A''^  doubt,  not   to  be   followed  by 

but,  372. 
Nominating  speeches,  1 71-172. 
Not  any,  372. 
Not  so,  not  as,  372. 
Notes,    in    oral   exposition,    34-37; 

library,  141-144;  use  of,  152-153. 
Noioheres,  366. 
Numbering  of  outline,  31. 
Numbers,  expression  of,  12. 

0,  oh,  372. 

Odor,  in  description,  310-31 1. 

Off,  not  followed  by  of,  373. 

Oftentimes,  excessive  use  of,  373. 

One  of  the,  error  in  sentences  con- 
taining, 198-199,  373. 

Only,  position  of,  373. 

Opinion,  questions  of,  2o6-2c8;  not 
proof,  230-232. 

Oral  exposition,  outlines  for,  34-37; 
suggestions  for,  37;  distribution 
of  time  in  38;  gesture  in,  38-39; 
criticism  of,  39-40;  speeches  for 
special  occasions,  168-174;  story- 
telling, 323-324- 

Outlines,  in  exposition,  20-33, 67-79, 
158-162;  in  argumentation,  241- 
247. 

Overworked  words,  286-287. 

Paragraph,  indication  of,  14;  defini- 
tion of,  33;  length  of,  33,  82; 
unit]?'  of,  34,  81-82;  development 
of,  85-93;  single,  94;  coherence 
in,  94-96;  emphasis  in,  96-99; 
in  long  essay,  159-162;  in  busi- 
ness letter,  181;  in  story  writing, 
3.'ii-332 ;  in  news  writing,  352-354- 

Parallel  structure,  57-58. 


Parenthetical   expression,   punctua- 
tion of,  51. 
Participial  phrase,  punctuation  of, 

51- 
Participle,  dangling,  367;  reference 

of,  to  subject  of  sentence,  373. 
Passive  constructions,  373. 
People,  incorrectly  used  for  persons, 

373- 
Periodic  sentence,  loi. 
Periodicals,    indexes    to,     135-138; 

value  of,  138-139;  bibliography  of, 

139-140. 
Phrase,  distinguished  from  sentence, 

44;  absolute  phrase,  punctuation 

of,  44;  phrase  standing  alone,  44; 

participial,  punctuation  of,  51. 
Plagiarism,  144. 

Plan,  not  to  be  followed  by  on,  374. 
Plenty,  not  to  be  used  as  adjective, 

374- 

Plots,  in  short  stories,  325-330. 

Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Litera- 
ture, 136. 

Possessive,  of  proper  nouns  ending 
in  s,  368  {Dickens's);  before  ger- 
und,  374;   of   inanimate   objects, 

374- 
Potential  verb-phrases,  193-194. 
Predicate,    no    comma    before,    52; 

in  expository  outline,  29,  79. 
Prefer,  not  to  be  followed  by  than, 

374- 
Premises,  in  reasoning,  233. 
Previous,  not  to  be  used  adverbially, 

374- 
Principles  and  opinions,  exposition 

of,  64-80. 
Pronunciation.  3-4,  40,  380-382. 
Proof,  224-225;  burden  of,  225-227. 


392 


INDEX 


Proper    names,    capitalization    of, 

12-13. 
Proposition,  incorrect  use  of,  374. 
Proven,  not  a  desirable  substitute 

for  proved,  222,  375. 
Public  documents,  134-135. 

Question,  statement  of,  in  argumen- 
tation, 209-212. 
Quite  a  few,  incorrect  use  of,  375. 
Quotation  marks,  il. 

Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Litera- 
ture, 136-139. 

Reader's  point  of  view,  in  exposition, 
19,  77;  in  argumentation,  237-240. 

Reason,  followed  by  that,  not  by 
because,  375. 

Reasoning,  232-237. 

Reference  books,  general,  use  of, 
109-120. 

Refutation,  240-241. 

Regard,  in  regard  to,  as  regards,  201. 

Remember,  not  to  be  followed  by  of, 

375- 
Restrictive  clause,  punctuation  of, 

50. 

Reverend,  not  to  be  used  with  sur- 
name alone,  375. 

Revision,  14;  in  description,  315- 
316;  in  short  story,  335-336- 

Round,  not  a  contraction  of  around, 
375- 

Seldom  if  ever,  375. 

Self-criticism,  163-166. 

Semicolon,   in  compound  sentence, 

48. 

Sense-impressions,  in  description, 
307-311. 


Sentence,4i-63;  distinguished  from 
clause, 42-44;  compound, 43,45- 
47;  use  of  so  in,  47-48 ;  variety  in 
form  cf,  100;  loose,  100;  periodic, 
loi;  balanced,  103-104;  in  collo- 
quial English,  194- 197. 

Shall  and  will,  should  and  would, 
5,  190-192. 

Short  stories,  study  of,  324-326. 

Should  of,  367. 

Slang,  201-202. 

So,  excessive  use  of,  47-48,  324,  375; 
not  to  be  used  for  very,  375. 

Social  letters,  185-187. 

Some,  not  to  be  used  adverbially, 

376. 

Somebody  else's,  376. 

Some  place,  366. 

Sonuwheres,  366. 

Sound  in  description,  309-310. 

Speeches  for  special  occasions,  168- 
174. 

Spelling,  14,  384-385- 

Split  infinitive,  376. 

Story,  the  short,  322-336. 

Structure,  parallel,  57. 

Style,  252-256. 

Subjects  for  themes,  for  short  ex- 
positions, 16-19,  64-66;  for  essays 
based  on  reading,  145-147;  for 
business  letters,  182-185;  for 
argumentation,  210-21 1,  223-224; 
for  description,  318-320;  for 
stories,  327-329;  for  historical 
essays,  340-342;  for  biographical 
essays,  343-346;  for  news  writing 

355>  357- 

Subjunctive,  192-193. 

Subsequent,  not  to  be  used  adverb- 
ially, 376. 


INDEX 


393 


Syllogism,  233-234. 
Synonyms,  277-278,  281-284. 
Syntax,  of  colloquial  Englisli,  194- 
199;  errors  in,  365-378- 

Take,  incorrect  use  of,  376. 

Taste,  in  description,  309. 

Than,  syntax  after,  376. 

Then  too,  excessive  use  of,  376. 

There  being,  awkward  use  of,  376. 

There  is,  excessive  use  of,  377. 

Till,  not  a  contraction  of  until,  377. 

Titles,  II. 

Too,  position  of,  377. 

Touch,  in  description,  309. 

Treats,  followed  by  of,  377. 

Try,  not  to  be  followed  by  and,  377. 

Typewriter,  use  of,  22-31. 

United  States,  must  be  preceded  by 
the,  S77' 

Unity,  in  outline,  32;  in  expository 
paragraph,  34,  81-82;  in  business 
letter,  176-177;  in  narrative  para- 
graph, 331-332- 

Up,  superfluous  before  until,  S77- 


Usage,    good,    in    words,    257-258, 

274-275. 

Very,  superfluous  use  of,  377;  not 
to  be  used  alone  with  passive 
participles,  377. 

Vocabulary ,  enlargement  of,  287- 
289. 

Voice,  in  oral  expo-'tion,  40. 

Waived  points,  219. 

Way,    incorrect    adverbial    use    of, 

377- 
Whereaboiits,   followed   by   singular 

verb,  378. 
Wliile,  error  in  use  of,  199-200,  378. 
Whom,  cannot  be  subject  of  finite 

verb,  378. 
Why,  incorrect  use  of,  378. 
Witnesses,  in  argumentation,  228- 

230. 
Words,  study  of,  252-289. 
Would  of,  367. 

Yearbooks,  11 7-1 19. 

y^^,  2,,  378- 


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